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WHITNEY LIBRARY,
HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

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THE GIFT OF
J. D. WHITNEY,

Sturyis Hooper Professor

IN THE

MUSEUM OF COMPAKATIVE ZOOLOGY

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THE

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CANADIAN

ftatraiist atiu (gtolomgt,

AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

OF MONTEEAL.

CONDUCTED BY A COMMITTEE OP THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

VOLUME IV.

iBantxtuX :

PUBLISHED BY B. DAWSON & SON, 23 GREAT ST. JAMES STREET.

1859.

This Magazine will appear bi-monthly, and be conducted by the
following Committee, appointed by the Natural History Society of
Montreal : —

J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S., Principal of Mc Gill College.
T. Sterry Hunt, A.M., F.R.S., Chemist to Geological Survey of Canada.
E. Billings, Palceontologist " " M

David Allan Poe, Esq. Rev. A. F. Kemp.

A. N. Rennie, Esq.
W. H. Hingston, M.D., Corresponding Secretary Nat. Hist. Society.
John Leeming, Esq., Recording Secretary " (l

Entered, according to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year
one thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine, by Benjamin Dawson &
Son, in the Office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Article I. — Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of the
Cruciferse throughout the British possessions in

North America ; by G. Barnston, 1

II.— Fish Manures ; by T. S. Hunt, F.R.S., 13

III. — Additional Notes on the Post-Pliocene Deposits of

the St. Lawrence Valley ; by Dr. Dawson, 23

IV. — Report on the Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ;

by M. H. Perley, 40

V. — On the Cold Term of January, 1859 ; by Charles

Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 81

VI. — Report on the Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence;

by M. H. Perley, 84

VII. — Catalogue of Canadian Plants in the Holmes' Herb-
arium, 100

VII. — Geographical distribution of the Genus JUlium in

British North America; by G. Barnston, 116

VIII. — On the Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects ;

by Dr. Gibb, 121

IX. — On some new genera and species of Brachiopoda ; by

E. Billings, F.G.S.. 131

X. — On the Variable Illuminating Power of Coal Gas ;

by Prof. Aikin, 136

XI. — On the Microscopic Structure of some Canadian

Limestones ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., 161

XII. — On Ozone. By Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 169

XIII. — On the relative value of human life in different parts

of Canada ; by P. P. Carpenter, B.A., 1*73

XIV. — On a specimen of Aboriginal Pottery in the Museum

of the Natural History Society of Montreal, 186

XV. — On the Indian Tribes of McKenzie River district and

the Arctic Coast, 190

XVI. — On the Natural History of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and the distribution of the Mollusca of Eastern Ca-
nada ; by Robert Bell, jr., 19*7

XVII. — Geological Survey of Canada — Figures and Descrip-
tions of Canadian Organic Remains, 220

XVIII. — On the Natural History of the Gulf of St. Lawrence ;

by Robert Bell, jr., 241

XIX. — Observations on the Natural History of the Valley of
the River Rouge r and surrounding townships in the
Counties of Argenteuil and Ottawa ; by W. S. M.

D'Urban, 252

XX. — Contributions to Meteorology, — from observations
taken at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada East ; by

Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 276

XXI.— The Oxford Museum ; by H. W. Acland, M.D., and

John A. Ruskin, M.A. [From the Athenaeum.] . . . 280
XXII. — American Association for the Advancement of Science, 289
XXIII. — Description of a new genus of Brachiopoda, and on the

genus Cyrtodonta ; by E. Billings, F.G.S., 301

XXIV. — On a new species of Stickleback (Gasterosteus gym-

netes) ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., 321

•

IV CONTENTS.

PAGE

XXV. — On some of the Glacial Phenomena of Canada and the
north-eastern Provinces of the United States during
the drift period ; by Prof. Andrew C. Ramsay, F.R.S. 325

XXVL— On Ozone ; by Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 343

XXVII. — Fossils of the Calciferous Sandrock, including those

of a deposit of white limestone at Mingan, supposed

to belong to the formation ; by E. Billings, F.G.S., 345

XXVIII. — Description of some new species of Trilobites from the

Lower and Middle Silurian rocks of Canada; by E.

Billings, F.G.S., 367

XXIX.— On the Aurora Borealis of the 28th of August, 1859 ;

by Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 383

XXX. — Notes on Egyptian Antiquities presented to the Natu-
ral History Society by Hon. Mr. Ferrier 401

XXXI.— -On Ozone; by Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., 408

XXXII. — Notes on Land and Sea Birds observed around Quebec ;

by J. M. Le Moine 411

XXXIII. — On some points in Chemical Geology ; by T. Sterry

Hunt, M.A., F.R.S., 414

XXXIV. — Fossils of the Chazy Limestone, with descriptions of

new species ; By E. Billings 426

XXXV. — Archaia ; or Studies of the Cosmogony and Natural
History of the Hebrew Sciptures ; by J. W. Dawson,
LL.D., F.G.S. Review of, by Rev. A. F. Kemp,.. 470

Miscellaneous.

Geological Society of London, 69

Canadian Institute of Toronto, 70

Agassiz on a Museum of Natural History, 72

Twenty-eighth Meeting of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, 75

Inauguration of the New Buildings of the Natural History

Society, Cathcart Street, Montreal, 141

The Toronto Microscopical Society, 155

Note on Mollusks and Radiates from Labrador, 158

List of Birds found in Upper Canada, 231

Report of the Council of the Natural History Society, 233

Lower Carboniferous Coal Measures of British America, 304

Donations to the Library of the Natural History Society of

Montreal, 1858 and 1859 y 305

Donations to the Museum of the Natural History Society of

Montreal, 1858 and 1859, 305

A Systematic List of Coleoptera found in the vicinity of Mon-
treal ; by W. S. M. D'Urban, 307, 494

British Association for the Advancement of Science, 387

Meteorological Tables of Dr. Smallwood, End of the Volume.

Reviews and Notices op Books.

Proceedings of the Essex Institution, Salem, Mass., 56

Wild Flowers ; how to see and how to gather them, 60

A Life of Linnaeus, 61

Geological Survey of Canada — Report of Progress for 1857, . . 62

The Master-Builder's Plan ; by George Ogilvie, M.D., 159

The Naturalist in Bermuda, 228

The Microscope, 230

Curiosities of Natural History, 231

Memoirs of the Life of James Wilson, Esq., F.R.S., 389

Lizars on the Use and Abuse of Tobacco, 399

THE

CANADIAN

NATURALIST AND GEOLOGIST.

Vol. IV. FEBRUARY, 1859, No, 1,

ARTICLE I. — Remarks on the Geographical Distribution of the
Cruciferce throughout the British Possessions in North
America. By George Barxston, Esq.

(Fresented to the Montreal Katural History Society.)

In bringing Cruciferjs forward immediately after Fumariace.e,
Torrey, with Lis usual acumen, has followed the surest indica-
tions of relationship. In these two orders the petals and stamens
are equal is number, and the superior ovary is formed nearly
on the same plan with Parietal Placentae. In both the sepals
are deciduous, and those of Fumariacse we might almost look up-
on as four, but united into two. The differences which do exist
are not so great as to neutralize the above resemblances in cha-
racters so essential to the formation of a natural system. That
profound observer Jussieu, also, at an earlier date, did not fail to
allow their due weight to these decided marks of propinquity.

Of the species of Cruciferje to be found in North America,
Torrey and Gray describe 113. Of these, there are probably ten
that have been introduced, and perhaps nearly as many are com-
mon or indigenous to both North America and Europe. The nine
or more tribes into which these cruciferae are divided, derive their
characters from the length or shortness of the silique, its dehiscence
or indehiscence, the arrangement of the seeds with regard to the

Canadian Nat. 1 vol. iv. no. r.

2 Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferce.

placentae, their margination, and the position of the cotyledon with-
in the seed. The greater portion of these nine tribes have their
•ies generally diffused, some on the western side of the Rocky
Mountains, others on the eastern plateau, and the Atlantic board.
The tribe Isatidese is an exception, however, as it appears only in
the far west, where six or seven species of Thysajiocarpi occur.

Commencing with the Arabideji, the first tribe of the erei
siliquose division, we have three species of Oheiranthus in
North America. The 0. capitatus in California and Oregon,
passing into British territory from Paget Sound, the C. Pallasii
on the North West coast, and the C. Hesperidoidcs, in Pensyl-
vania, Kentucky, Illinois and Arkansas. No locality in the British
territories eastward of the Mountain, appears to be quoted by any
author for American Wallflowers; and certainly I have not heard
of them native in Canada. The fragrant and most grateful, the
Oheiranthus cheiri, is only to be found in our gardens.

The Nasturtiums (Water -cresses) are well sprinkled over
the country south of Canada, but more rarely elsewhere. We
possess the N. palustre, however, in all quarters, wherever the
ground is suitable for it, throughout the length and breadth of
the land. The N. natans, a scarcer plant, is to be found in
Canada and the United States, along the borders of small Takes,
and may be distinguished by its immersed leaves being many-
parted with capillary segments. The other Nasturtiums are dis-
tributed to the number of five in the United States, and of four
in the Oregon and on the north west coast.

Barbarea prcecox attains to a high latitude, say 6S°, and
we have it also along the banks of rivers in Canada. The Bar-
barea vulgaris, common in the Northern States, is also found in
Oregon and on the north-west coast, running north to Sitka,
within the Russian territories. There may be difference of opinion,
whether this be an introduced plant or not, according to the quar-
ter where it may be found. Occurring in settled districts in the
States, one might piononnce it introduce,!, while in new or wilder
situations another would at once sav it was indigenous. It is the
Yellow Rocket and Winter Cress of the English ; the Cresse de
Terre of the French ; and Ilierba de Santa Barbara of the
Spanish.

Passing over the genus Strcptanthus, of which three species
occur in the United States, three in the rocky mountains, anl six
in California and Oregon, we arrive at the Turritis of Dillenius.

Geographical Distribution of the Crucijerce. 3

Of this genus the species most frequently seen is the T. glabra,
common enough on the shores of Lake Superior and the banks of
the streams running into Hudson's Bay; it extends northward as
far as lat. 64°, and in the more northern latitudes is accompanied
by the T. patula, and T. retrofracta, which are distinguished
principally by their spreading and ret refract pods. Within the
arctic circle the T. mollis and T. diffusa are joined to them,
when the T. retrofracta drops off. The T. pa tula, although not
reported as higher than 6S Q on the continent, has nevertheless a
variety in Greenland, from which country Sir W. J. Hooker has
received it. The Turritis macrocarpa and T. striata are western
plants; the T. brachycarpa is confined to the Michigan territory.

The genus Arabis has 15 species now discovered in North
America, of which five are natives of this province, the A.petroza,
hirsuta, lyrata, laevigata, and Canadensis. The A. hirsuta, fre-
quent near the coast of Hudson's Bay, extends to the Oregon,
and alono* the shores of the Pacific as far as Sitka. The
A. petrcaa is also marked by Ohamisso as a plant of Unal-
ashka. On the north shores of the St. Lawrence below Quebec,
the A. laevigata is common, and is met with here and there
throughout Canada. The two other Canadian species, the A.
lyrata and Canadensis, like the last, travel southwards, and are
seen scattered over the States as far as Virginia, Georgia, and the
Arkansas. Two species, which appear to be confined to Labrador,
the A. Alpina and A. striata, are amongst the cruciferse of Europe.
Of this rather extensive genus there are still 7 or 8 species to be
found in North America, but to the southward of the boundary
line. Four of these are the discovery of the indefatigable Xuttall
amongst the Rocky Mountains and towards the Oregon.

The bitter cresses, or Cardamines, not so numerous in species
as the last genus, and more seldom met with in the north than the
genera, Turritis and Arabis have the leaves generally pinnately di-
vided, which is a form little observed in the other two. Carda-
mine rotundifolia, and C. bellidifolia, have undivided leaves, and
are extensively distributed, each in its chosen habitat. The former
best known in the eastern and northern states, was also procured
by Drummoud in the Rocky Mountain defiles, from lat. 52 Q to
57°, which for one season, the summer of 1S5G, he took as the
range for his botanical researches. Lake Superior and Hudson's
Bay have also been quoted as affording this plant. The C. bellidi-
folia is a native of Arctic America, but, like some other plants of

4 Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferce.

that region, has its alpine residences in more southern latitudes.
The summits of the Rocky Mountains in lat. 52°, and what is
more remarkable and interesting, the White Mountains of ]New
Hampshire, claim the C. belUdifolia as a native. Sub Jo wfrigidoJ
we may exclaim, as we meet this errant stranger in its airy quar-
ters, and imagine while we pluck it that we inhale the atmosphere
of the arctic zone. A still more extraordinary place allotted for
this plant is California, as testified by Douglas, whose observa-
tions were always so clear and so well authenticated, that we are
scarcely at liberty to doubt them. The pinnately leaved Carda-
minece amount to seven, according to Torrey and Gray, three of
which are Arctic plants. The C. pratensis of Linnseus is on the
islands of the Arctic Ocean as well as in Behrings Straits, so that
we may conclude with a considerable degree of certainty that it
extends alono-st the whole northern coast of this continent. Beinsr
a native also of Hudson's Bay, Canada, and the western part of
the State of New York, it would appear that it accommodates
itself to a breadth of climate equivalent to at least 30 degrees of
latitude. The C. hirsuta, running less to the northward, (as
far as has yet been observed,) is nevertheless found, on the coasts
bordering on the Arctic Sea, and on the north-west coast in high
latitudes, having a distribution eastward and westward equal to
the breadth of the continent in lat. 45°. The C. Virginica of
U. States' botanists is a variation ofthe Cardamine we have just had
under consideration. The Cardamine digitata is confined en-
tirely to the north, and passes over Behring's Straits to form one
of the Siberian Flora. Other three species are the C. angulata,
and C. oligospermia, from the Oregon, and C. Ludoviciana, from
Georgia, Kentucky, and the Arkansas, but they are foreign to the
British possessions. Cardamine purpurea is a Siberian plant,
and although by the celebrated voyage and discoveries of Captain,
now Admiral Beechey, we know that it passes over to Kotzebue's
Sound, yet it must still only be considered as foreign, as it has not
yet been heard of beyond the Russian territories.

The Dentaria, near Cardamine, but having the roots toothed
ortubercled, is a southern genus. D. laciniata, and D.diphylla,
enter Canada, but do not, as far as I have observed, advance
farther northward. The D. tenclla, and D. macro-car pa, belong
to the Oregon, and it is very probable may yet be discovered
passing the boundary line of 49°, and so enter into our list of
New Caledonia or Fraser River plants. Should Palliser's party cross

Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferce. 5

tbe Rocky Mountains, much information no doubt will be obtained
regarding plants, and other subjects of natural history, from
the able and zealous naturalists composing that scientific party*
The Thompson's and Frazer's River countries display as fine a
fieVl for the enterprise of scientific and speculative minds as is to
be found in North America.

Following the Dentaria, we have the genus Parrya, a name
given by R. Brown to an Arctic plant or two, to commemorate
the distinguished officer, who was amongst the foremost of the
discoverers in the expeditions which were set on foot during the
present century, to ascertain the reality of a North West passage.
As it is a northern plant, I may state that in it the pods are
broader than in the genera hitherto mentioned, the valves are
veiny, the seeds broadly margined, and the funiculi more or less
adherent to the septum. On the Arctic coast, to the eastward of
Mackenzie River, we have one species, the Parrya arctica of
Brown ; and to the westward of the same river, and on the north-
west coast, the Parrya, macrocarpa. By the late Sir John
Franklin and his companion, now Sir George Back, the P. macro-
car pa was brought home on their second voyage to and from
the Arctic coast ; but it must have been known before this to the
Russians, Linnaeus having described a variety of it under the
name, Arabis caide-nudo.

The two genera with which Torrey closes the Arabidece of North
America are the Phenicaulis and Leavenworthia ; but I pass them
over, as the former occurs only to the westward of the Rocky
Mountains, at the Forks of Lewis and Clark, on the high hills of
the "Wallawalla, and the other is confined to the Central and
Southern States.

AVe are introduced to the tribe Sisymbrece in the genus
Hesperis, of which there are two of North America. The Hes-
peris minima is the same plant as the H. pyymaza of Hooker,
and probably does not differ from the Cherianthus Pallasii of
Pursh. It scarcely passes to the southward of the Ai-ctic circle,
but stretches from Behring's Straits eastward as far as Great Bear's
Lake, where it was found by Sir John Richardson. The II. Men-
ziesii is recognized as coming only from California.

The genus Sisymbrium, like that of Arabis, dispenses its
species over Arctic as well as Sub-arctic America, and that too in
not very unequal order. The Sisymbrium officinale is sup-
posed to have been introduced from Europe into Canada and the

6 Geographical Distribution of the Craciferce.

United States, but the S. Sophia, which appears in various
localities in Lower Canada, may be a native; a point, however,
not easy to be determined. Common to British America and the
United States is the very generally diffused Sisymbrium canes-
cens, which is also found on the Rocky Mountains, and westward
to Oregon and California. This soft-looking, frequently hoary
plant, is very hardy, bearing the rigours of the north as well
as the heats of Georgia and Arkansas. The S. Sophioides of
Fischer, found in high latitudes, extends from Hudson's Bay to
the Arctic coast, stretching westward round the continent to the
Pacific. It is remarkable amongst its kind by the flowers and
pods being in umbelliform corymbs. The S. junceum is from
dry stony grounds in the Oregon. Six or seven other species,
the discoveries of Nuttall, are found on the hills of the great
dividing ridge, south of 49 ; but it is very probable that some if
not all of these will be met with by Monsieur Bourgeau, the
French botanist attached to Palliser's exploring party, which has
been busy last season on the Bow River, and near the boundary
line, where it crosses the back-bone of America. In that quarter,
hitherto so dangerous, and therefore seldom or never approached
by the foot of civilized man, there is a portion of both prairie and
mountain yet unsearched, its geology and its botany only dedu-
cible from what is known of districts far removed from it. We
may therefore anticipate a most interesting description of novelties,
in the natural history of the region in question, when the survey-
ing and exploring expeditions bring the fruits of their labors
before the public. In concluding my remarks on the present
genus, I may observe that the S. humile, a Siberian species, is
also a production of the Rocky Mountains, but in the higher lati-
tudes, from 52° to 68°. The Sisymbrium Thalianum, the Arabis
Thaliana of Linnaeus, has been introduced from Europe.

Passing the Tropidocarpa of Hooker, natives of California, we
come upon the genus Erysimum, which contains some hand-
some species, shewing themselves on the plains, and on the
dry grassy spots throughout the north. The E. cheiranthoides,
known in Europe, is also gathered in Canada and the United
States, and in the prairie country. We find it west of the Rocky
Mountains in hit. 47°, as far as the Pacific ; and Hooker gives it
a place on the banks of the McKenzie, up to 67°. The E*
lanceolatum, a handsome little plant, appears in the flora of
Canada, and, proceeding northwards, reaches the Arctic Sea-

Geographical Jjlstribution of the Cruciferce, 7

Torrey and Gray are silent as to its presence on the Pacific,
although from Hookers work we might conclude that it existed
there. The E. asperum, a closely allied species, flourishes in
the plains eastward and westward of the mountain ranges, attain-
ing the latitude of 65° on the McKenzie. Strictly speaking, the
interior of the continent is its peculiar ground, as it does not in
any quarter appear to approach the sea-coast within a considera-
ble number of degrees. Nuttall has five others of this genus,
none of which have yet been noted as on British territory. One
i-s from Arkansas and Texas, two are from the elevated plains of the
Hooky Mountains, one from the banks of the Wiliamet, and the
fifth from the neighbourhood of Monterey, Upper California.

The second great division of Cruciferce is like that of the Sili-
quosje, very extensively distributed over all the temperate climes
of the northern hemisphere, and British America has its portion
of them. In the genus Vesicaria, the V. arctica extends from
the island of Anticosti to the Arctic Regions, where it prevails
most. The borders of the eastern prairies are probably the limit
of its range westward, in the lat. of 52°. The V.didymoearpa is a
very singular species, conspicuous by its strong corymb of flowers,
and when in fruit remarkable for its evidently bilobed didymous
silicle, which is orbicular or inflated. On the Rocky Mountains,
from lat. 52° to 5*7°, and in all probability southwards to the
sources of the Platte, it seeks the deep sand-banks and sand-beds,
wherever its long fusiform roots may find eas}^ lodgment.

Of all the genera of the Cruciferous order, Draba has in North
America the greatest number of species. Thirty belong to this
continent, and of those the greater part are Arctic and sub-
Arctic plants. Confined to high northern latitudes, and scattered
over the islands and shores of the Arctic Seas, we have the
D. algida, alpina, paucijtora, micropelala, oblongata, corym-
bosa, lapponica, and stellata. In the extreme north is also
found the D. glacialis ; but this has likewise an Alpine resi-
dence southwardly, on the summits of the Rocky Mountains,
to which the ethers apparently do not stray. The Uniba
Icevigata has been seen as yet only at the extremity of
North West America. Common to the sub-Arctic as well as
Arctic regions are other Drabas more likely to be fallen in with
by the Canadian botanist. The D. muricella exists in the
north, and in Labrador. The D. incana, stretching along the
eoast of the Frozen Sea from Unalaschka to Labrador, can be

8 Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferm,

gathered plentifully on the north shores of the St. Lawrence.
The D. hirta, is common on the rocky islands of Lake Supe-
rior; and the D. glabella, lutea, and nemorcdis, approach the
confines of Canada West. Hooker gives the island of Mon-
treal as a habitat of the Draba murcdis of Linnseus. The
Draba o£igo&perma r a native of the banks of McKenzie's River,
appears to have been collected by Nuttall on the summit of lofty
hills near the sources of the Platte. The Rocky Mountains afford
near their heights some Drabas peculiar to the range ; the
D. densifolia at the sources of Lewis's River, the D. rupestris
levipes, crassifolia and aurca, on the same ridges, as far north
as lat. 5*7°. The strictly southern species are fewer in num-
ber. D. arabisans is found near Lake Champlaiu, and in the
States of New York and Michigan, crossing to the north shore of
Lake Superior. Five or six others are dispersed only over the-
Central and Western States ; but the Z>. verna, with bipartite
petals, which may be reckoned among these r sometimes may be
seen decking the hill-sides and fields of our province.

The fifth tribe of Cruciferte, the Alyssinece, commencing with
Vesicaria, continued in Draba, will end with Cochlearia, a
genus pre-eminently Polar, as encircling to a great extent the
Great Polar Basin, representing the great flowering classes almost
at the very limits- of vegetation, and bearing* the standard of Flora
nearly to the axle of our sphere. Three Cochlear ia belong
to Russian America, and four to our Arctic coast. These
latter are the C. Anglica r fenestrolis, officinalis, and Danica„
C try dactylites is said, to occur in Labrador, and C, Greenlandica
pertains to Greenland. Diffused laterally like a belt or girdle^,
this genus, assisted by other plants of a similar constitution, and
the Mosses and Lichens, helps to produce an identity of vegetable-
growth and covering to the earth in the highest northern latitudes,
on the European, Asiatic, and American shores.

The genus Camelina, from which the sixth tribe of Crucifene,.
the Camclinecc, takes name,, has but one species native of North
America, the (7. bmharecefolia, which has been found only on*
the Russian territory en the north-west coast. The C. sativo
must be an introduced plant, and is probably working its way
westwards and northwards vvitli the progress of civilization.

Braya, with the four following genera, has been placed by
Torrey, with some degree of doubt, in the tribe Camelimm*
The Rrcya alpina is. obtained on the Rocky Mountains, from,

Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferce. 9

latitude 52° to 57° ; and the B. glabella and pilosa are the
d's^overies of Sir John Richardson, on the shores of the Arctic
Sea, the latter having been met with only at the outlet of McKen-
zie River.

Platypetalum puvpurascens has a habitat extending from
McKenzie River to Spitzbergen, and the P. dubium is a species of
Melville Island.

Two Eutremw, the E.Edwardsii, upon which R. Brown founded
the genus, and the E. arenicola, are both Arctic plants. The
former was discovered first on Pa*ry's voyage to Melville Island,
and was afterwards collected, along with the second, on the Arctic
coast, on each side of the McKenzie, by the travellers Franklin
and Richardson.

A single species of the genus Platyspermum, the P.scapigerum
was the discovery of David Douglas, at the great Falls of the
Oregon or Columbia River.

The Subularia aquatica of Linnaeus has been procured from
the borders of ponds in Maine by Nuttall.

Two tribes having the silicle compressed, contrary to the nar-
row septum, will now complete what has to be said regarding the
Siluculos^e and their distribution. These are the Thlaspidinece
and Lepedinece.

The Thlaspi arvense of Linnasus, as well as the Thlaspi at-
pestre, are commonly met with in old waste grounds in Canada.
Both I believe to have been introduced, for neither of them occur
to my knowledge in the newly-settled or the uncultivated and
wilder parts of the country. Tbe Thlaspi alliaceum is rare.
The indigenous species T. montanum is found from Canada to the
Arctic zone ; and the T. cochleariforma, closely resembling it,
occupies a western position, about the head waters of the
Oregon. The T. tuberosum, remarkable for its tuberiferous
roots, does not appear to have been met with in Canada or the
North. It was discovered by Nuttall in Western Pennsylvania.

Hutdiinsia, another genus of this tribe Tldaspidinice, has a
species, the H. calycina,* from the Rocky Mountains, in lat. 52°
to 57° ; a variety of it is noted as native in Kotzebue's Sound.

The Lepldium ruderale occurs frequently throughout the Bri-
tish Possessions from Hudson's Bay to the Pacific Ocean, prefer-
ring waste places like the Thlaspi. The L. campestre, common
about fields and gardens, is a weed introduced from England.
Species are met with passing the Rocky Mountains into the

10 Geographical Distribution of the Crucifera.

Oregon Territory, such as the L. integrifolium and L. montanum.
The Lepidium Menziesii, first known on the north-west coast,
was also gathered by Drummond in the Rocky Mountains, after-
wards by Nuttall on the same ranges farther south. We can
merely name the Californian species, the L. oxycarpum and
L. latipes, discovered by Douglas ; the L. Calif or niciun, lasiocar-
pum, and nitidum, by Nuttall.

The Capsella bursa-pastoris, or Shepherd's Purse of the
old countryman, is well diffused over the whole country to the
roots of the Rocky Mountains westward, and to Great Bear's Lake
northwards. About this, our well-known old friend, there is never
any mistake. The declared plague of the pasture, and detested
by the industrious gardener, the bursa-pastoris nevertheless
gladdens our eye with its homely and home-like look, reminding
us of early days and all their associations, the country road, the
cotter's kale-yard, and other long-forgotten scenes.

The third division of our order, the JVucamentosce, contain-
ing the ninth tribe, the Isatidece of Decandolle, furnishes us
with but one genus on this continent, the I. thysahocarpus of
Hooker, of which all the species lie west of the Rocky Mountains.
The /. curvipes, upon which the genus was founded, was dis-
covered by Douglas at the Great Falls of the Columbia ; and the
/. oblongefolius was first discovered by Nuttall as being native
of the same country, but much lower down the river, at the junc-
tion of the Willamet. Four others are Californian, the /. elegans
and pulchellus of Fischer and Meyer, and the /. crenatus and laci-
niatus of Nuttall.

In the fourth division Lomentacece is the tenth tribe, Cahi-
inece, in which w r e have the genus Cakile. The single species,
C. Americana, is a strange-looking plant, known in English as
the Sea Rocket. The pods are constricted, and have trans-
verse separations, forming one celled, one seeded joints. It
is not apparently a common plant, but occurs near the sea, and
on the shores of the oreat lakes of Canada. I have seen it on sand
along the north bank of the great St. Lawrence River, from the
Gulf up as far as the Saguenay. Its fleshy leaves no doubt enable
the Cakile, although on a smaller scale than the purely succulent
orders, such as the Cacti, &c, to assimilate much of its sustenance
from the air; nature thus, by wise modifications of structure,
compensating liberally in one way, for what may be wanting or
&tinted in another. I have been sometimes surprised at the fresh-

Geographical Distribution of the Cruciferce. 11

ness of the Cakilc in a dry sand, where most other plants of the
same order would have withered and perished.

In taking leave of this most useful and interesting order, I may
with propriety quote from Sir John Richardson's very able obser-
vations at the end of his "Journal of a Boat Voyage," published
in 1851. Regarding Polar plants, he says : — " Of the Polar
" plants, amounting to 91 species, which inhabit Melville Island,
" the shore of Barrow's Straits to Lancaster's Sound, and the
" north coast of Greenland, between the 73rd and 75th parallels
" of latitude, about |ths range to Greenland, Lapland, or Northern
" Asia. Of the remainder some have been gathered on the shores
" of the Arctic Sea from Baffin's Bay to Behring's Strait-, and it
" is probable if these high latitudes were fully explored, the Flora
" of the entire zone would be found to be uniform. Some of the
"more local plants will perhaps be ascertained, on farther ac-
" quaintance, to be mere varieties altered by peculiarities of
" climate. That the Flora as well as the Fauna of the high
" northern latitudes is nearly alike in the several meridians of
" Europe, Asia and America, has long been known ; and even
" when to some distance south of the Arctic circle, we find that
" this law is superior to the intrusion of high mountain chains,
" and is but partially infringed upon." Further on he observes :
" The families of Polar plants which are most rich in .ire

" the Cruciferae, Gramineae, Saxifrageae, Caryophylleae and Com-
" posits. Of these, the Saxifrageae are most characteristic of
" extreme northern vegetation. All of them that inhabit the 74th
" parallel in America are found also in Spitzbergen, Lapland or
"Siberia; and even the Polar species are twice as numerous as
" those which exist in the wide district which ' Gray's Flora of
" the Northern States' comprehends; and we may add, that the
"plant which Humboldt traced highest in the Andes, was a
" Saxifrage. The Caryophylleae and Cruciferae, which vie with
" the Saxifrageae in number on the 74th parallel, include many of
" the doubtful species above alluded to."

There is no doubt every reason to believe that Sir John's words
as to the unlucky multiplication of species through the separation
of varieties will some time or other prove true, not only in the
plants of the Arctic zone, but also in those further south. More
extended acquaintance with both will correct our knowledge in
that particular. Able monographs amongst American and Euro-
pean botanists will do this work, so much required.

12 Geographical Distribution of the Crucifera.

With regard to Cruciferse in particular, it appears to me
that there exists in the species of this order an aptitude to recon-
cile themselves to the various peculiarities and changes of climate
incident to countries under different meridians. In North Ame-
rica many European Crucifeise have become naturalized. They
frequently usurp a prevalence in our gardens and in cultivated
grounds, so as to become weeds, reminding the old countryman
at every step of scenes of his youthful home. Nasturtium
officinale, Barburea vulgaris, Thlaspe arvense, Lepidium cam-
pestre, and most frequent of all, the Capsella bursa-pastoris,
are naturalized Americans and Canadians ; and is not this in
perfect accordance with the diffusive character of the order, as
noted by botanists in those species which exist in the highest
northern latitudes ?

In those dismal regions where ice holds almost eternal empire,
and where frost is arrested but for a few short weeks of the year,
we still may please ourselves with discovering that wise provision
is made, as far as possible under the circumstances, for the wants
of man. The intense cold of winter and spring requires that the
bodily functions of the Esquimaux should be fortified by a diet of
pure animal food, and that too of the fattest and most oily descrip-
tion. The composition of the blood is thus preserved in a state
fit for supporting the human frame, while the lungs are breathing
freely an intensely cold condensed atmosphere. When the sum-
mer arrives, and the length of sunshine heats the air, the natives
must have their systems surcharged. Nature then may be sup-
posed as stepping in, and supplying from her stores the most
cooling, aperient, and anti-scorbutic vegetables for their relief. The
Esquimaux at this season, by having recourse to the productions
of mother earth, may have his blood purified and his shin cleansed,
as well as the inhabitant of the tropics can by the condiments
around him have his languid appetite stimulated, and the inci-
pient fcver assuaged. In whatever quarter of the globe man may
be placed, surely by searching he may find what is best calcu-
lated to benefit him. Let him only take the trouble and time to
investigate, and turn to advantage what has been so liberally —
nay, often so lavishly, we may say — spread out before him, and
he will not fail to discover, that an unseeu hand has been long
since at work to anticipate his wishes, and supply his needs.

Montreal, Januarv, 1859.

Fish Manures. 13

ARTICLE II. — Fish Manures. By T. Sterry Huxt. Ex-
tracted from the Report of the Geological Survey of Canada
for 1857.

Before describing the results of some enquiries into the value
of these manures, and the practicability of introducing their ma-
nufacture into Canada, it may be well to explain briefly certain
principles which may serve to guide us in the appreciation of the
subject. Modern investigations of the chemistry of vegetation
have led to a more or less correct understanding of the laws of
vegetable nutrition and the theorv ofmanures, and we are all aware
how many natural and artificial matters have been proposed as
substitutes for the manure of the stable and farm-vard. Foremost
among these ranks the Peruvian guano, composed for the most
part of the exuviae of sea-birds, and employed for centuries by the
Peruvians as a powerful stimulant to vegetation. This substance
owes its value to the phosphoric acid and ammonia which it is
capable of affording to the growing plant ; the former element be-
ing indispensable to the healthy development of vegetation and
entering in large proportion into the mineral matter of the cereals,
while ammonia furnishes in a form capable of assimilation, the
nitrogen, which with the elements of water and carbonic a<
makes up the organic tissues of plants. Besides these i ss sntial
principles, plants require sulphuric acid, silica, chlorine, potash, soda,
lime, magnesia and oxyd of iron, all of which elements are found
in their ashes, and are required for their healthy growth. In a
fertile soil all of these ingredients are present, as well as phospho-
ric aeid and ammonia, which last substance is constantly produced
by the decay of animal and vegetable matters, and is either at
once retained by the soil, which has the power of absorbing a cer-
tain portion of it, or is evolved into the air and afterwards dissolved
and brought down bv the rains to the earth.

Many of the mineral elements of a soil are present in it in an
insoluble form, and arc only set free by the slow chemical re-ac-
tions constantly going on under the influence of air and wa1
Such is the case with the alkalies, potash and soda, and to a
certain extent with the phosphates. Now although there is pio-
bably no soil which does not yield by analysis quantities of all the
mineral elements sufficient for many crops, yet by long and un-
interrupted tillage the more soluble combinations of these elements
may be all taken up, and the land will then require a certain time

14 Fish Manures,

of repose in order that a store of more soluble matters may be form-
ed. Ilence the utility of fallows.

In my analysis of the soils of the Richelieu valley, in the Report
for 1850, pp. 79-90, I have shown, by comparing the virgin soils
with those exhausted by continued crops of wheat during fifty
years, that the proportions of phosphoric acid and magnesia, ele-
ments which are contained in large quantities in this grain, have
been greatly diminished, but the soil still contains as much phos-
phate as it has lost, and this only requires to be rendered soluble
in order to be available to vegetation.

In forests and untilled lands the conditions of a healthy vegeta-
ble growth are seldom wanting; the soil affords in sufficient quan-
tity all the chemical elements required, while the leaves and seeds
which annually fall and decay, give back to the earth a grea
proportion of the elements which it has yielded. In this way the
only loss of mineral matter is that which remains stored up in the
growing wood or is removed by waters from the soil. Far dif-
ferent is the case in cultivated fields, since in the shape of corn,
of fat cattle, and the products of the dairy, we remove from the
soil its phosphates, alkalies and nitrogen, and send them to foreign
markets. The effect of tillage becomes doubly exhaustive when
by artificial means we stimulate vegetation without furnishing all
the materials required for the growing plants. Such is the effect
of many special manures, which while the3 r supply certain elements,
enable the plants to remove the others more rapidly from the soil.
A partial exhaustion of the soil results likewise from repeated
crops of the same kind ; for the elements of which the cereals
require the largest quantity are taken in smaller proportions by
green crops, and reciprocally, so that by judicious alternations the
balance between the different mineral inoredients of the soil is
preserved.

One of the great problems in scientific agriculture is to supply
to the soil the ammonia and the mineral matters necessary to sup-
port an abundant vegetation, and to obtain from various sources
these different elements at prices which will permit of their being
economically made use of. Nowhere but in the manure of the
stable and farm-yard can we find combined all the fertilizing ele-
ments required, but several of them may be very cheaply procured.
Thus lime and magnesia are abundant in the shape of marl and
limestones ; soda is readily obtained, together with chlorine, in
common salt ; while gypsum or plaster of Paris supplies at a low

Fish Manures, 1-5

price both sulphuric acid and lime. Potash when wanting may
be supplied to the soil by wood-ashes, but phosphoric acid and
ammonia are less easily obtained and command higher prices.

An abundant supply of phosphate of lime is found in bones,
which when dried contain from 50'0 to 6O0 p. c. of mineral mat-
ter, consisting of phosphate of lime, with a little carbonate, and
small portions of salts of magnesia and soda. The remainder is
organic matter, which is destroyed when the bones are burned.
This phosphate of lime of bones contains 46*0 per cent of phos-
phoric acid, and the refuse bone-black of the sugar-refiners usually
affords about 32'0 per cent, of the acid. The different guanos
also contain large amounts of phosphoric acid, and that known as
Columbian guano is principally phosphate of lime. Various de-
posits of mineral phosphate of. lime have of late attracted the at-
tention of scientific agriculturists. I may mention in this connec-
tion the crystalline phosphate of lime or apatite of our Laurentian
limestones, and the phosphatic nodules found in different parts of
the Lower Silurian strata of Canada and described in previous Re-
ports.

These mineral phosphates are in such a state of aggregation, that
it is necessary to decompose them by sulphuric acid before apply-
ing them to the soil. The same process is also very often applied
to bones ; for this end the phosphate of lime in powder is to be
mingled with nearly two-thirds its weight of sulphuric acid, which
converts two-thirds of the lime into sulphate, and leaves the remain-
der combined with the phosphoric acid as a soluble super-phos-
phate. In this w T ay, the phosphoric acid may be applied to the
soil in a much more divided state, and its efficiency is thereby
greatly increased. Even in its soluble form however, the phos-
phoric acid is at once neutralized by the basic oxyds in the soil,
and Mr. Paul Thenard has lately shown that ordinary phosphate
of lime, when dissolved in carbonic-acid water, is decomposed by
digestion with earth, insoluble phosphates of iron and alumina be-
ing formed, which are a^ain slowly decomposed by the somewhat
soluble silicate of lime present in the soil and transformed into
silicates with formation of phosphate of lime. It is probable that
alkaline silicates may also play a similar part in the soil. These
considerations show that the superior value of soluble phosphate of
of lime as a manure, depends solely upon its greater subdivision.
A portion of the phosphoric acid in Peruvian guano exists in a
soluble condition as phosphate of ammonia.

16 Fish Manures.

With regard to the nitrogen in manures, it may exist in the
form of ammoniacal salts, or combined in organic matters which
evolve ammonia by their slow decay. The ammonia which the
latter are capable of thus yielding, is designated as potential or
possible ammonia, as distinguished from the ammonia of the
ammoniacal salts, which is generally soluble in water, and is at once
disengaged when these matters are mingled with potash or quick-
lime. Such is the sulphate of ammonia, which is prepared on a
large scale from the alkaline liquid condensed in the manufacture
of coal-gas. In Peruvian guano a large amount of the nitrogen
is present as a salt of ammonia, and the remainder chiefly as uric
acid, a substance which readily decomposes, and produces a great
deal of ammonia. In fact, this decomposition takes place spon-
taneously, with so much rapidity, that the best guanos may, it is
said, lose more than one-fifth of their nitrogen in the form of am-
monia in a few months' time, if exposed to a moist atmosphere.

Other manures, however, contain nitrogen in combinations which
undergo decomposition less readily than uric acid. Thus unburned
bones yield from six to seven per cent, of ammonia, and dried blood,
fifteen or sixteen per cent, while woollen rags and leather yield
about as large a quantity. In estimating the value of such mat-
ters as manures, the difference in the facility with which they en-
ter into decomposition, must be taken into account. Thus if too
large quantities of guano are applied to the soil, a portion of the
ammonia may be volatilized and lost, while with leather and wool
the decay is so slow, that these materials have but little immediate
effect as manures. The nitrogen of blood and flesh is converted
into ammonia with so much ease, that it may be considered al-
most as available for the purpose of a manure as that which is
contained in ammoniacal salts.

Attempts have been made to fix the money value of the am-
monia and the phosphates in manures, and thus to enable us from
the results of analysis, to estimate the value of any fertilizer con-
taining these elements. This was I believe first suggested a few
years since, by an eminent agricultural chemist of Saxony, Dr.
Stockhardt, and has been adopted by the scientific agriculturists
of Great Britain, France and the United States. These values
vary of course very much for different countries ; but I shall avail
myself of the calculations made by Prof. S. AV. Johnson of New
Haven, Connecticut, which are based on the prices of manures in

e United States in 1857. In order to fix the value of phosphoric

Fish Manures. 17

acid in its insoluble combinations, he has taken the market prices of
Columbian guano, and the refuse bone-ash of the sugar refiners,
which contain respectively about 40 and 32 per cent, of phospho-
ric acid, and from these he deduces as a mean 4£ cents the pound
as the value of phosphoric acid when present in the form of phos-
phate of lime. This would give $1.44 as the value of 100 pounds of
bone-ash, and $1.60 for the same amount of the guano, while they
are sold for $30 and $35 the ton.

The value of soluble phosphoric acid has been fixed by Dr.
Volcker in England, and by Stockhardt in Saxony, at 12^ cents
the pound. This evaluation is based upon the market price of the
commercial super-phosphates of lime. Mr. Way of the Royal
Agricultural Society, however, estimates the value of phosphoric
acid in its soluble combinations at only 10^ cents the pound ; and
Mr. Johnson, although adopting the higher price, regards it as above
the true value.

In order to fix the real value of ammonia, Prof. Johnson deducts
from the price of Peruvian guano, at $65 the ton, the value of the
phosphoric acid which it contains, and thus arrives at 14 cents the
pound for the price of the available ammonia present.. This kind
of guano, however, now commands a price considerably above that
which serves for the basis of the above calculation ; and both
Volcker and Stockhardt fix the value of ammonia at 20 cents the
pound. The price of potash as a manure is estimated by Mr. John-
son at 4 cents the pound ; but this alkali rarely enters to any
considerable extent into any concentrated manures, and may there-
fore be neglected in estimates of their value.

The use of fish as a manure has Ions: been known : on the
shores of Scotland, Cornwall, Brittany, some parts of the United
States, and on our own sea-coasts, the offal from fisheries, as well
as certain bony fishes of little value for food, are applied to the
soil with great benefit. The idea of converting these materials
into a portable manure was however I believe first carried into
effect in France by Mr. Demolon, who seven or eight years since,
erected establishments for this object on the coast of Brittany and
in Newfoundland. For the details of this manufacture I am
indebted to the Chimie Industrielle of Payen. Concarneau, in
the department of Finisterre, is a small town whose inhabitants
are employed in fishing fur sardines, and it is the refuse of this
fishery which is employed in the manufacture of manure. The
offal is placed in large coppers and heated by steam until
Canadian Nat. 2 yol. iv. no. i.

18 Fish Manures,

thoroughly cooked, after which it is submitted to pressure, which
extracts the water and oil. The pressed mass is then rasped,
dried in a current of hot air, and ground to powder. 100 part9
of the recent offal yield on an average 22 parts of the powder,
besides from 2 to 2 £ parts of oil. The manufactory of Concarneau
employs six men and ten boys, and is able to work up daily eigh-
teen or twenty tons of fish, and produce from four to five tons of
the powdered manure.

This manure contains, according to an average of several
analyses, 80.0 per cent, of organic matters, and 14.1 per cent, of
phosphates of lime and magnesia, besides some common salt, a
little carbonate of lime, small portions of sulphate and carbonate
of ammonia, and only 1.0 per cent of water. The nitrogen of
this manure, which is almost wholly in the form of organic mat-
ters, corresponds to 14.5 per cent of ammonia, and we may esti-
mate the phosphoric acid, which is here present in an insoluble
form, at 7.0 per cent. If we calculate the value of this manure
accoiding to the rules above laid down, we shall have as follows
for 100 pounds : —

Ammonia, — 14£ pounds, at 14 cents, $2.03

Phosphoric Acid, — 7 pounds, at 4| cents 0.31i

$2.34J

This is equal to $47 the ton of 2000 pounds ; the manufactured
product of Concarneau, however, according to Payen, is sold in
the nearest shipping ports at 20 francs the 100 kilogrammes,
(equal to 220 pounds), which, counting the franc at $0.20, is
equivalent only to $1.81, the 100 pounds, or a little over 8-37 the
ton. This however was in 1854, since which time the price of
manures has probably increased.

Mr. Demolon in company with his brother, has also according
to Paven, erected a large establishment for the manufacture of
this manure on the coast of Newfoundland, at Kerpon, near the
eastern entrance of the Strait of Bellisle, in a harbor which is
greatly resorted to by the vessels engaged in the cod- fishery
This manufactory, now in successful operation, is able to produce
8,000 or 10,000 tons of manure annually. Paven estimates the

7 7 » >J

total yearly produce of the cod-fisheries of the North American
coast to be equal to about 1,500,000 tons of fresh fish ; of this ?
one-half is refuse, and is thrown into the sea or left to decay on
the shore, while if treated by the process of Demolon, it would

Fish Manures. 19

yield more than 150,000 tons of a manure nearly equal in value
to the guano of the Peruvian islands, which now furnish annually
from 300,000 to 400,000 tons. If to the manure which might
he obtained from the cod-fisheries of the Lower Provinces, we add
that of many ether great fisheries, we are surprised at the immense
resources for agriculture now neglected, which may be drawn at
a little expense from the sea, and even from the otherwise worth-
less refuse of another industry. To this may be added vast
quantities of other fish, which at certain seasons and on some
coasts are so abundant that they are even taken for the express
purpose of spreading upon the adjacent lands, and which would
greatly extend the resources of this new manufacture. The oil,
whole extraction is made an object of economic importance in the
fabrication of manure from sardines, in France, exists in but very
small quantities in the cod, but in the herring it equals 10 per
•cent, of the recent fish, and in seme other species rises to 3.0 and
4.0 per cent.

Mr. Duncan Bruce of Gaspe has lately been endeavoring to
introduce the manufacture of fish-manure into Canada; but he
has conceived the idea of combining the fish offal with a larce
amount of calcined shale, under the impression that the ma-
nure thus prepared will have the effect of driving away insects
from the plants to which it is applied. He employs a black
•bituminous shale from Port Daniel, and distilling this at a red
heat, passes the disengaged vapours into a vat containing the
fish, wfeich by a gentle and continued heat, have been reduce!
to a pulpy mass. The calcined shale is then ground to powder
and mingled with the fish, and the whole dried. Experiments
Wiade with this manure appear to have given very satisfactory results,
audit is said to have had the effect of driving away insects when
applied to growing crops, a result which may be due to the
small amount of bituminous matter iu the products of the distil-
lation of the shale, rather than to the admixture of the calcined
residue. Coal-tar is known to be an efficient agent for the des-
truction of insects, and in a rocent number of the journal, Le
Coxmos, it is stated that simply painting the wood-work of the
inside of green-houses with coal-tar has the effect of expelling
from them all noxious insects. Mr. Bruce caused several analv-
ses of this shale to be made by Dr. Reid of New York, from
which it appears that differerent specimens contain from 2-0 to
260 per cent, of carbonate of lime, besides from 1*4 to 2*0 per

20 Fish Manures,

cent, of carbon remaining after distillation. The amount of vola-
tile matter, described by Dr. Reid as consisting of water, naphtha
and ammonia, was found by him in two different samples to
equal only 3*5 per cent., of which a large proportion is probably
water..

I have examined two specimens of manure prepared by Mr
Bruce from the fish commonly known as the menha Iden (Alota
menhaddeu). No. 1 was made with the Port Daniel shale, as
before describe!; while for No. 2, this was replaced by a mix-
ture of clay and saw dust, which was distilled like the shale, the
volatile products being added to the decomposing fish. The oil
which rose to the surface of the liquid mass had been separated
from the second preparation, but remained mingled with the
first, both of these specimens were in the form of a black granu-
lar mass, moist, cohering under pressure,, aud having a very fishy
odour. A proximate analysis of these manures was first effected
by exposing a weighed portion to a temperature of 200° F. till
it no lono-er lost weight, and then calcining the residue, from
which the carbonaceous residue very readily burned away. The
oil in the first specimen was obtained by digesting a second por-
tion, previously dried, with either, so long as anything was taken
up. The solution by evaporation left the oil, whose weight was
deducted from the loss by ignition. The portion of oil remain-
ing in the second sample was not determined.

I. II.

Animal matter and carbon, 23. 1 }

Oil, 6-6$ ^" U

Water, 135 21-8

Earthy matters, 56-2 57'2

100-0 100-0

The residue of the calcination was digested with hydrochloric
acid, which dissolved the phosphate of lime from the fish-bones,
together with portions of lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxyd of
iron, derived from the shale and clay. The solution from No. 1

m

contained, moreo.er, a considerable portion of sulphate from the
gypsum of the shale. Small quantities of common salt were
also removed by water from the calcined residues. The dissolved
phosphoric acid, lime, and magnesia were separated by precipi-
tating the phosphoric acid, in combination with peroxyd of iron,
from a boiling acetic solution and were determined according to

Fish Manures, 21

the method of Fresenius. The nitrogen of the organic matter
was estimated by the direct method of burning a portion of the
dried substance with soda lime, and weighing the disengaged am-
monia as ammonia-chlorid of platinum. The results were as follows
for a hundred parts : —

I. II.

Phosphoric acid, 3-40 3-99

Sulphuric acid, 2.16 -15

Lime, 5-90 4*44

Magnesia, . 1-20 T15

Ammonia, 3 76 2-60

If we calculate the value of the fi st specimen according to the
rules already laid down, we have as follows for 100 pounds : —

Phosphoric acid, 3 4 pounds aft 4^ cents,. . . . $0-153
Ammonia 3| pounds at 14 cents, 0*525

$0-678

At 68 cents the 100 pounds, this manure would be worth 813.60
the ton. The sulphuric acid is of small value, corresponding to
SO pounds of plaster of Paris to the ton, and we do not take it
into the calculation. The somewhat larger amount of phosphoric
acid in the second specimen, is probably derived in part from the
ashes of the saw-dust, and in part from the clay. The value of
tliis manure would be $10-88 the ton.

In order to arrive at the real value of the animal portion of this
manure after the removal of the oil, w r e may suppose, since Dr.
Keid obtained from the shales from 4'5 to 7 6 per cent, of fixed
carbon, that with the 56.2 parts of calcined" residue, there were
orio-inally 3*7 parts <*f carbon derived from the shales. This de-
ducted from 23'7 parts leaves 20*0 of nitroorenized animal matter
in 100 parts of the manure, yielding 3-76 parts, or 18*8 per cent,
of ammonia. This matter consists chiefly of muscular and gelatinous
tissues, and Paycn obtained from the dried muscle of the cod-fi-h,
lb'S per cent, of nitrogen, equal to 20-4 of ammonia. The 24-4
parts of phosphoric acid in the mannre will correspond to 7-4 of
bone-phosphate, and if to this we add for moisture, impurities,
etc., 26 parts, = 3*00 in all, we should have fur 100 pounds of

22 Fish Manures.

the fish when freed from oil and dried, the following quantities e€
ammonia and phosphoric acid : —

Ammonia, — 12£"P 0Un ds at 14 cents, $1.75

Phosphoric, acid, — lis pounds at 4£ cents,.. 0*51

$2-26

The matter thus prepared would have a value of $45.20 the ton,,
agreeing closely with that which we have calculated for the ma-
nure manufactured from sardines in France, in which the quantity
of ammonia is somewhat greater, and the phosphoric acid less,
giving it a value of $47 the ton.

Prof. George EL Cook of New Jersey, in an analysis of the men-
kadden, obtained from 100 parts of the dried fish, 16*7 parts of
oil, besides 616 of azotized matters yielding 9-28 parts of ammonia,,
and 21*7 of inorganic matters, etc., containing 7*78 of phosphoric
acid.* If we deduct the oil, we shall have for 100 parts of the
fish, according to this analysis, 11.2 of ammonia, and 9'S of phos-
phoric acid.

By comparing these figures with the results calculated for the-
animal portion of Mr. Bruce^s manures, we find :

Ammonia. Phosphoric acid ;

Manure from sardines (Payen), 14-5. 7*0

Dried menhadden (Cooke), 11*2 9-3

Manures by Mr. Bruce 3-75 3-4

" " (excluding shale),.. 12-5. 11*3

The proportion of phosphates is of course greater in the more bony
fishes. In the manure of Mr. Bruce there are doubtless small amounts
of phosphoric acid and ammonia, derived from the shale and the-
products of its distillation ;. but thesedo not however warrant the in-
troduction of an inert material which reduces more than two-thirds
the commercial value of the manure. The results which we have
given clearly show that by the application ef a process similar to-
that now applied in Franee and in Newfoundland, which consists
in cooking the fish, pressing it to extract the oil and water, drying
by artificial heat, and brin«ling it to powder, it is easy to prepare
a concentrated manure, whose value, as a source of phosphoric
acid and ammonia, will be in round numbers, about $40 the ton.

* Report of the Geological Survey of New Jersey for 1856, p. 93..

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 23

We can scarcely doubt that by the application of this process a
new source of profit may be found iu the fisheries of the Gulf,
which will not only render us independent of foreign guano, now
brought into the Province to some extent, but will enable us to
export large quantities of a most valuable concentrated manure, at
prices which will be found remunerative.

ARTICLE III. — Additional Notes on the Post-Pliocene Deposits
of the St, Lawrence Valley. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D.,
F.G.S., &c.

{Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal.)

In a paper on the Newer Pliocene and Po>t Pliocene deposits
of the vicinity of Montreal, communicated to the Natural History
Society last winter, I promised to follow up the subject, especially
in the direction of the more minute organisms of these deposits,
and the comparison of the stratigraphical arrangements near
Montreal with those in other parts of the Province. In fulfil-
ment of this promise, I now proceed to state a number of facts
which I have ascertained or which have been communicated to
me in the past summer.

I. FORAMINIFERA AND BrYOZOA.

The Foraminifera are creatures almost at the extreme limit of
simplicity of structure in the animal kingdom. Generally micro-
scopic in dimensions and consisting of a soft and apparently
homogeneous jelly, they present no appreciable organs, except
little thread-like extensions of their bodies, which appear to be
their organs of prehension and locomotion. Such creatures might
at first sight be supposed incapable of being preserved among the
medals of creation. They have, however, the power of secreting
for their protection delicate and beautiful calcareous cells, divided
into a number of chambers which are added successively in the
progress of growth, and communicate with each other and with
the outer world by minute orifices ; and as these creature* abound
everywhere in the oceau, their shells are constantly accumulating
on its bottom, so as in some cases so form thick beds of calca-
reous matter. The Bryozoa, equally minute in size, are far more
complex in structure ; presenting, with a general polyp form,

24 Post-Pliocene Deposits cj the St. Laurence.

complicated digestive and muscular apparatus, which place them
far in advance of the bydroid polyps, and have induced the majo-
rity of modern zoologists to arrange them with the mollusks.
They occupy horny or calcareous cells, which usually have wide
openings for the extension of the arms or tentacles which procure
the food of the inmates. These cells are arranged in branching
or flat and circular groups, which form a large proportion of the
zoophytes of the older naturalists, and are to be found everywhere
on submerged stones, shells, and sea-weeds.

I place these two tribes, in their structure so dissimilar, to-
gether, because they are found together in the drift deposits; and
because, owing to this and to their microscopic size, they can be
conveniently studied in connection.

Before proceeding to describe the species found, I may mention
that though the minute dimensions of these objects may cause
them to escape the notice of many collectors, they are, when
studied with the aid of the microscope, not inferior in interest and
beauty to any other fossils found in our tertiary plains. The
Foraminifera may easily be detected by examining the clays in
which fossil shells occur, and particularly those holding Fusus
tornatus and the spicula of Tethea Logani* wilh the aid of a
pocket lens. When they are thus ascertained to be present, a
quantity of the clay should be well dried, broken into small pieces,
and stirred in a quantity of w r ater, when the clay will subside and
the little shells may be skimmed from the surface. When dry
they may be spread on a tray or on dark-colored paper, and
examined with the lens to ascertain what forms are present.
They may then be picked up with a moist camePs-hair pencil,
and placed separately in small boxes for more minute examina-
tion. For the microscope, they may be mounted either on a dark
ground as opaque objects, or in Canada balsam as transparent
objects; and should be studied in both of these ways. With the
foraminifera, the collector will usually find valves of Cytheridea,
some of the smaller univalves, and detached cells of Lepralia.

(1.) Position of Foraminifera and Bryozoa in the Post Pliocene

.Deposits.

Logan's Farm. — In the last volume of the Naturalist, I de-

* For notices of these and other fossils referred to in these pages, see
my -former paper, Canad. Nat. 'vaL 2.

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 25

scribed a number of species of fossils from Logan's farm, and
stated what I believed to be their relative position. By the kind-
ness of Mr. Logan, I have since been enabled to make an exca-
vation in the spot where these remains are most abundant, and
obtained the following section : —

ft. in.
Soil and sand, 1 9

Tough reddish clay, 0\

Gray sand, a few specimens of Saxicava rugosa, Mytilus edulis,
Tellina Grcenlandica, and Mya arenaria, the valves generally
united, 8

Tough reddish clay, a few shells of Astarte Laurentiana, and Leda

Portlandica, 1 1

Gray sand, containing detached valves of Saxicava rugosa, Mya
truncate^ and Tellina Grcenlandica ; also Trichotropis bore-
alis, and Balanus crenatus : the shells in three thin layers . 8

Sand and clay, with a few shells, principally Saxicava in de-
tached valves 1 3

Band of sandy clay, full of Natica clausa, Trichotropis borealis,
Fusus tornatus, Buccinum undatum, Astarte Laurentiana,
Balanus crenatus, &c. &c, sponges and Foraminifera. Nearly
all the rare and deep-sea shells of this locality occur in this
band, 3

Sand. and clay, a few shells of Astarte and Saxicava, and remains

of sea-weeds with Lepralia attached ; also Foraminifera, ... 2

Stony clay, boulder clay.

It thus appears that at Logan's farm we have littoral species at
top, and that all the rare and deep-water fossils, as well as the
Lepralice and Foraminifera occur in a comparatively thin band
near the base of the deposit. This corresponds precisely with the
order observed elsewhere in the vicinitv of Montreal ; tliouuh at
Logan's Farm the arrangement is somewhat more complex than
in other localities.

Tanneries. — At the brick-vards near the village of the Tanne-
ries, near Montreal, the surface of the Leda clay is well stored
with Leda Portlandica, Astarte Laurentiana, Natica clausa
Tellina Grcenlandica, and some other shells. It also contains
sponge spicula and foraminifera. The shells at this place, though
by no means so numerous as at Logan's farm, are remarkable lor
their excellent state of preservation.

Beauport. — I visited this celebrated deposit for the first time
last autumn. At first sight it consists of a mass of stratified sand

26 Posl-PUocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence.

and gravel, equivalent to the Saxicava sand of Montreal, and
resting on boulder clay. The overlying mass is filled with Saxi-
cava Tcllince, &e. ; and the underlying boulder clay as usual
contains no fossils. My experience in the Montreal deposits,
however, led me to expect a bed, however thin, representing the
Leda clay, between these ; and on searching at the junction of
the two great beds above mentioned, I was gratified by finding a
layer of sand about three inches in thickness, filled with the rarer
shells of the deposit, characteristic of its deeper waters, such as
Fusus tornatus,PecttnIsla>idicus, Baccinum ciliatum, Modiolaria
discors, etc.* Tiie Rhyncondla psittacea occurs only in this layer,
and in such a manner as to leave no doubt that it is buried here
in situ, in the very spot where it lay anchored to the stones of
the surface of the drift. On these stones, however, I found a new
and interesting field for observation. In the thin layer above
referred to, all the stones, as well as those that lay on the surface
of the boulder clay or partly imbedded in it, were covered with
the remains of marine creatures, especially Balanus crenatus,
Spirorbis sinistrorsa,Spirorbi8 spirit! am, Lepralia andHippothoa.
This layer, in short, evidently represented a time when the sur-
face of the boulder clay, covered only by a thin layer of sand and
stones, constituted the bottom of clear and deep water, before it
became covered by the Saxicava sand. This bottom, although
no clay has been deposited on it, represents the Leda clay at
Montreal, and is exceedingly rich in the fossils usually found
at the surface of that bed. Foraminiferx occur in it, but they
are comparatively rare, and, so tar as I could find, only of spe-
cies common at Montreal.

(2.) Species of For aminif era.

In my paper of last year a few of these were figured, but the
nomenclature of these creatures was in a state so unsettled that
I hesitated to attach names to them or to identify them with
described species. I am now relieved of the greater part of this
difficulty by the appearance of Williamson's excellent monograph
on the British Foraminifera, the nomenclature of which I shall fol-
low in noticing our Canadian species.

* Sir C. Lyell notices the fact that these shells are more abundant in
the lower part of the mass than above.

T ost-Vliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 27

Fig. 1.

1. Pohjstomella umbilicatula, Walker (Fig. 1).* — Nine tenths
of the foraminifera from the Montreal clays belong to this species,
which also occurs at Beauport, and in equal proportionate abun-
dance living in Gaspe Bay. The specimens all belong to the
variety incerta of Williamson ; and as among many hundreds of
specimens I can find none that present the typical characters of
the species, and as the general form is also less compressed than
in the typical specimens as described and figured by Williamson,
I should be inclined to believe this so-called variety in reality a
distinct species, were it not for the fact, that, while these curious
little creatures are almost indefinitely variable, there is a re-
markable persistency of certain varieties in particular localities.
The modern specimens from Gaspe correspond precisely with
their ancient progenitors of the Post-Pliocene clays. The size of
the fossil specimens is large for the species ; the diameter of some
individuals being ^(h. of an inch.

Localities. — Logan's farm, Montreal ; Brick-yards at Tanneries,
Montreal ; Beauport ; also recent in Gaspe Bay.

2. Nonionina crassula, Walker. — Among the fossil specimens of
the last species, there are many not distinguishable from it in
external form, in which I cannot find, either when viewed as
opaque or transparent objects, the characteristic septal apertures
of Polystomella. These specimens are usually smaller, more
hyaline, and smoother than those showing the apertures. If dis-
tinct, they must belong to the species above named. I found no
individuals of this description among my recent specimens from
Gaspe.

* See also paper in Can. Nat. Vol. 2, Fig. 17.

28 Post- Pliocene Deposits of the St. Laivrence.

3. Polymorphina lactea (Figs. 2, 3, also pnper in Canad. Nat
vol 2). This is perhaps the second species in relative importance
though much less plentiful than Polystomella umbilicatula. The
greater number of the specimens belong to the variety "typica"
of Williamson (F<g. 2). Others appear to be an exaggerated
form of the variety " oblonga* (Fig. 3), and many others, espe-
cially the smaller examples, are of the variety li communis.''' 1 A
similar range of vari ties exists in the modern specimens from
Gaspe. Size -fa to T \.

Localities. — Logan's farm ; Tanneries; recent in Gaspe.

Fig. 2 Fig. 3.

4. M'diolina seminulum (Lin.) — (For figure, see paper in Can^
Nat. Vol. 2, Fig. 18.) In my paper of last year this species was
noticed as QuinquelocuUna occidentalism Bailey ; and I still be-
lieve it to be identical with the shell so named ; but I presume
that it, as well as many other supposed species of the genus
QuinquelocuUna of D'Orbigny, must be included in Miliulina
Seminulum, as extended by Williamson. This shell is not in-
frequent in the -clays at Montreal, and it, also occurs in Gaspe
Bay. It approaches very nearly to the typical form of the spe-
cies, but is usually of small size, not exceeding ^jth of an inch in
length.

Locality. — Logan's farm.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

5. Entosolenia globosa (Figs. 4, 5). — This species is not uncom-
mon in the clay at Montreal. Fig, 21 of my paper of last year i s

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Laivrence,

29

referable to it, as I had not then observed the internal tube, and
supposed it in consequence to be an Orbulina. Figs. 4 and 5
show this internal structure. This species is very small, scarcely
exceeding T |o' n of an inch, and is very smooth and translucent.
Locality. — Logan's farm ; Tanneries.

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

6. Entosolenia costata, Williamson (Figs. 6, 7 ; also Fig. 22 in
paper of last year.) — This beautiful little shell differs from that
last described only in the possession of longitudinal narrow ribs.
Williamson, who had seen only two or three examples, establishes
it as a separate species with some doubt ; and since in my speci-
mens from the Montreal clays the number and distinctness of the
ribs are very variable, I think it probable that this shell is only a
variety of E. ylohosa.

Locality as above.

Fig. 10. Fig. 9. Fig. 8.

y l. Entosolenia Squamosa (Figs. 8, U, 10). — This, the most
elegant of all our Post-Pliocene foraminifera, presents several
beautifully ornamented varieties. In the last species the sides are
marked by simple longitudinal ribs. In the simple varieties o*
this the ribs are cossed by more slender transverse bands
In others the reef angular spaces thus formed appear to have
circles inscribed in them. In others the distinction of longitu-
dinal and transverse ribs disappears, and the whole sin face be
comes covered with a regular hexagonal network of raised lines o T
various degrees of fineness. I have endeavoured to represent

30 Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence,

several of these forms in the figures ; but there are many inter-
mediate varieties, and my wood-cut representations fall far short
of the exquisite beauty of the shells themselves, which appear
under the microscope as if worked in pure translucent porcelain.
Size T i F to F V-

Parker and Jones regard the three species last described as
identical. Williamson also leans to this view ; and since in my
specimens there is a gradation from those that are smooth to
those that are ribbed, and from these to those th;tt are netted, I
can scarcely hesitate to adopt the same conclusion, in which case
the two la-t species must be regarded as varieties of E. globosa.

Fig. 11.

8. Biloculina ringens, D'Orb. (Fig. 11). — I have found only
two specimens of this species, and neither revealed much of its
real character until mounted as a transparent object. I have
figured one of them as it appears in this way ; and it well shows
the manner in which the successive cells are added, the orifice
being alternately at opposite ends of the shell. Size about ^\.

Locality. — Tanneries.

All the species of Foraminifcra above noticed are found living
as well as fossil. Three of them have been obtained b} 7 myself
from Gaspe Bay, and the others may probably be found there.
The species most abundant in the tertiary clays is also that which
prevails in Gaspe Bay, and the conditions of life in both nre
the same. The Gaspe specimens were found in mud, in from 10
to 15 fathoms, and holding Leda Umatula, Tellina calcarea, and
Astarte sulcata, so that it may be regarded as strictly equivalent
to our Montreal Leda clay, in or at the surface of which the
Foraminifera chiefly occur. Two species found at Gaspe have
not as yet been recognized in the tertiary clays. One is a globu-
lar shell, probably Orbulina universa, the other a rough, punc-
tured, yellowish species, probably Bulimina scabra.

Post-Pliocene Deposits oj the St, Lawrence. 31

All the species found in the Canadian tertiary clays are widely
distributed in the North Atlantic, and some of them still more
extensively. Polymorphina lactea is found in the British crag:,*
and Eatosolenia globosa in Miocene deposits at Petersburgh, U.S.f
They afford little indication of climate, Miliolina seminulum,
for instance, extending in the present seas from Greenland to Cuba.
Willi respect to depth of water, their indications are probably
more precise, though on this subject I can find little reliable infor-
mation. One fact is certain, that in Gaspe, at present, a depth
of 10 to 20 fathoms corresponds bathy metrically, in so far as these
creatures are concerned, with that represented by the upper layers
of the Leda clay, or brick-clay of Montreal. I have obtained,
however, at least one indication that there are still lower depths,
not represented as yet by the fossils of our tertiary deposits.

I owe to the kindness of Capt. Orlebar, R.N., two small speci-
mens of fine clay, taken up by the sounding-lead from depths of
187 and 196 fathoms, off Mount Camilla, near Bic Island, in
the River St. Lawrence. On carefully levigating these specimens,
I found in them three species of Foraminifera, all distinct from
those of the tertiary clays and of Gaspe, and the silicious shields
of a number of microscopic plants (Diatomacece). The Foramini-
fera I refer to the following species : —

Rotalina lurgida, "Williamson. (Fig. 20.)
Spiroloculina depressa, D'Orbigny. (Fig. 21.)
Bulimina auriculata, Bailey. (Fig. 22.)

BH^Bos^ ^/S^BsHfl

t $r - I V'mMvi

e

iijf ^ **^Swk

CI

t-r ^.yTs.^ IH^BI

as \ ^B

A '=^^W^^^B

^^L s^^^? - : 1 ^~^^^R

•

r- '

BHJHl' V f V \ \

CI

^Ht< \ ff. Ill

•

HH II 1 1H

be

H ! j I

Ph

■1/1

m^M

Fig. 22.

Wood.

f Bailey.

32 Post-Plioccjie Deposits of the St. Lawrence,

The Diatomacere associated with these shells include Coscino-
discus lineatus and species of Galliondla, Eunotia, Cocconeis and
Achncmthes, most of them apparently identical with forms figured
bv Bailey. There are also minute acicular spicula of sponges.

Since the highest points at which raised beaches have been
found in Canada scarcely reach an elevation of 80 fathoms above
the sea level, we can scarcely expect to find on the present land
evidence of depths equal to those represented by these soundings.
Their containing distinct species from those in the tertiary clays
is, however, an interesting fact, and I figure these as a guide to
collectors who may be so fortunate as to fij.;d them in a fossil state.

(3.) Species of Bryozoa.

stones
From the abundance of the remains of these creatures on

at the surface of the boulder clay at Beauport, I have no doubt
that a number of species might reward a diligent search. My
time however at th.s locality was very limited, and although I
brought thence single pebbles with as many as four or five species
attached to them, I have no doubt that my collection includes
only a small fraction of the species occurring there. The speci-
mens are also in many instances in a defective state of preserva-
tion ; and as collectors of these objects well know, even in recent
specimens it is often very difficult to determine species from the
dead cells alone. I am therefore able to name at present only a
few species, but these, I trust, may be relied on with some cer-
tainty.

1. Hijrpothoa catcnularia, Fleming. (Fig. 12.) — This pretty
little organism spreads its chains of cells over the tertiary pebbles
at Beauport. just as is now does in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; and
being of a dense and strong texture, is remarkably well preserved.
It belongs at present to the Laminarian and Coralline zones, and
is found abundantly in Gaspe Bay in nine fathoms.

2. Hlppotlioa divuricata, Lamour. (Fig. 13.) — This smaller
and more delicate species is very abundant at Beauport ; but
from its minuteness and its similarity in color to the grey, weath-
ered pebbles, may easily escape observation. It differs from the
typical form of the species in having the cells united to each other
directly, instead of by a slender calcareous thread ; but as John-
ston* mentions this as sometimes occurring in recent specimens

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 33

Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

it may be regarded as merely the characteristic of a variety*. I
have not yet found this species living in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

3. Tubulipora flabellaris, FabriGius. (Fig. 14.) — I refer — with
some doubt — to this species the organism represented in fig. 14,
which occurs sparingly and not in good preservation on stones
at Beauport. Fabricius found this species in Greenland, and it
occurs in various parts of the North Atlantic. I have not found
it living, but it may be the same with the T. divisa, a species
closely allied to Jlabellaris, found by Stimpson in the Bay of
Fundy.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

4. Lepralia hyalina, Lin. (Fig. 15.) — The organism represented
in fig. 15 must, I think, be referred to this species. It is found
sparingly on stones at Beauport, often nearly covered with the
remains of its ovicapsules. It now lives in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence and the Banks of Newfoundland.

5. Lepralia pertusa, Johnston. (Fig. 16.) — This species is

• British Zoophytes, page 292.

Can. Nat.

Vol. IV. No. 1.

34 Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence,

very abundant at Beauport, and, as usual with it, is very variable.
The cells represented in fig. 16 belong to the most regular and
beautiful variety, which occurs in a state of preservation quite
equal to recent specimens. //. pertusa is still one of the most
abundant forms on the American coast ; and the study of the
diverse forms of cells which occur in the same patch, is very
instructive in relation to the errors likely to arise from basing
specific distinctions in these creatures on minute differences in the
forms of the cells.

The two last species appear to the naked eye on the stones of
the drift, as flat, roundish, white patches, somewhat roughened,
like shagreen ; and under a lens of low power disclose the forms
of their cells.

Fig. 11.

7. Lcpralia quadricornuta. N. S. (Fig. 11.)— This is a large
species, the cells being about ^th of an inch in length. It is
quite distinct from any species known to me. Its description is
as follows : — Cells arranged alternately, ovate, ventricose, smooth
on the greater part of the surface, but toward the lower end finely
marked with radiating and transverse lines, and at the margins
roughened with scaly projections; aperture narrowed, flattened
at the distal margin, and armed with four hollow spines, those at
the angles strongest ; proximal margin deeply sinuated and pro-
jecting.

The specimens occur abundantly in the lowest part of the
deposit at Logan's farm, and are arranged in such a manner as to

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 35

show that they were attached to fronds of algae which have
entirely disappeared. Being imbedded in soft clay, it is much
more difficult to secure perfect specimens than in the case of the
species attached to stones. From the position of this Lepralia in
the deposit, I infer that it lived in very deep water; and it is
possible that when we are better acquainted with the deeper parts
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, it may be found there. Having
searched in vain for any described species corresponding with it,
I propose for it the name of L. quadricornuta, founded on its
most obvious distinctive character, which is of more importance
here than in the case of a recent species, owing to the circumstance
that the specimens in the clay usually split in such a manner as
to show only the inside of the cells, on which the four horns
generally remain sufficiently distinct.

Patches of this Lepralia one inch in length and half an inch in
breadth were found at Logan's farm, and the cells were remarka-
bly uniform in size and shape. If found in a living state, its large
size and elegant vase-like form will render it one of our finest
species. Its nearest allies appear to be L. ventricosa, Hassell, L.
trispinosa, Johnston, and L. crassispina, Stimpson.

Before leaving the Bryozoa, it may be well to name the addi-
tional species known to me as living in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and likely to occur in the drift : —

Membranipora pilosa, Gaspe, Nova Scotia.
Membranipora, another species, Gaspe.
Flustra Murrayana, Gaspe, Metis, Miss Carey's collection.
Tubulipora patina, Gaspe, Metis, Nova Scotia.

T. penkellata, Gaspe.

Idmonea Atlantica, Gasp6.

Cellularia neritina, Miss Carey's collection.

Cellular ia, another species, Gaspe.

Through the kindness of Andrew Dickson, Esq., I was lately
favored with the inspection of a flat stone taken up by the hook
of a fisherman on the Banks of Newfoundland, which wonderfully
resembles, in its assemblage of species, the stones in the drift at
Beauport. It has at one end a group of Balanus crenatus of the
precise variety so common in the drift; and over various parts of
the surface are abundant shells of Spirorbis sinistrorsa, with at
few of another species not as yet found in the drift. Large por-
tions of the surface are covered with Lepralia variolosa and

36 Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence.

hyalina ; and there is also a Tubulipora closely resembling that
found at Beauport. The shell of a dead Balanus contained a
little fine sand, among which were small and much rubbed speci-
mens of a Polystomella or Nonionina, and fragments of spines of
Echini. This stone is indeed almost a precise modern counterpart
of those buried in the drift at Beauport ; and they, like it, probably
lay in the bottom of a sea loaded in spring with boulder-bearing
ice.

I had almost omitted to mention that some of the stones from
Beauport, with Balanus, Bryozoa, &c, bear on their surfaces
distinct marks of glacial action, in their polish and striation ; and
that just as in exposed situations in modern seas, their animal
tenants have evidently selected the re-entering angles and least
exposed surfaces for their habitations.

II. Fresh-water Shells in the Post-pliocene Deposits.

I have on several occasions found specimens of Limnea in the
Post-pliocene clays, but always suspected some accidental inter-
mixture. I have been favoured in the past summer, by Andrew
Dickson, Esq., with specimens of land and fresh-water shells from
the bank of a brook emptying into the Mississippi, a tributary of
the Ottawa, two miles below Pakenham Mills, and at an elevation
of about 266 feet above Lake St. Peter. They were found in
sand and gravel containing TeUina Grcenlandica, and which Mr.
Dickson thinks is an undisturbed tertiary deposit. The specimens
furnished to me afford many internal evidences which would lead
me to the same conclusion. The species present are : —

Valvata tricarinata, Planorbis parvus,

Planorbis bicarinata, Amnicola porata,

Planorbis trivolvis, Helix striaiella ?

Lymnea elodes ?

As may be seen by reference to the paper by Mr. Billings in
the first volume of this journal, all these shells now exist in the
Ottawa valley. Proof of their existence there in the Post pliocene
era would be of great interest ; and though I am fully aware of
the many chances that may cause recent fresh-water shells to be
mixed with older deposits, I am strongly inclined to believe that
these deposits at Pakenham afford such evidence. Their occur-
rence is at least deserving of notice, that the attention of geologists
may be attracted to the locality.

Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 37

III. Land Plants.

I am indebted to Andrew Dickson, Esq., for the opportunity of
studying a large number of nodules containing plants, collected
by him at Green's Creek, on the Ottawa. They contain numerous
vegetable fragments, which appear to have been originally distri-
buted over the surface of a tract of clay and covered by similar
material, a layer of calcareous nodules subsequently forming along
the plane of deposition and imbedding and preserving the remains,
which are very little changed, though some of them appear to
have been in an advanced state of decomposition before being
imbedded. Among them I can recognize leaves or fragments of
leaves of the Populus balsamifera — which seems to be a very
abundant plant at this locality — leaves and stems of grasses,
needles of pines, and a moss apparently of the family Fontinalece
or Hypnece* There is also a well preserved small dicotyledonous
leaf, which I have not yet been able to identify.

The most curious point in connection with these remains is
their association with what seem to be remains of Algce, and with
shells of Leda Portlandica having the valves cohering. They
would thus appear to have been deposited in the sea and in deep
water. I observed something of the same kind in Gaspe Bay,
where, at the mouth of the North-west river, I found Leda lima-
tula living in dark-coloured mud containing vegetable matter,
much of it no doubt washed down by streams from the land.

IY. Miscellaneous Fossils.

Ophiocoma. — In my paper of last year I mentioned an organism
in a nodule from Ottawa which seemed to be the remains of an
ophiuroid star-fish. I have since found similar remains in the
Leda clay at the Tanneries, near Montreal. The specimens are
entirely disintegrated, but show the internal joints of the rays and
also the external plates and spines. From their form I judge that
they may have belonged to a small Ophiocoma, not very dissimilar
from the 0. bellis now found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; but
whether identical with that species, or with that found by Sir
W. E. Logan at Ottawa, I cannot certainly determine. I figure
some of the remains merely to direct the attention of other
observers to these curious objects. (Figs. 18, 19.)

* SullWant, in a note just received, Bays it is probably not far from
Hypnum riparium,

38 Post-Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence.

Figs. 18 and 19. — Joints of Ophiocoma, magnified.

Modiola glandula. — A single valve of this pretty lttle shell
has been found at Logan's farm. It now inhabits deep water in
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. I may also mention that I have found
perfect specimens of Modiolaria discors both at Logan's farm and
Beauport, which quite confirm Dr. Gould's identification of my
fragment of last year with that species.

Fusus (Clavatula) turricula. — Specimens of this shell have
been found by Mr. R. Ramsay at the Brick-yards at the Tanneries.
It occurs extensively in the North Atlantic, and fossil in the
British Crag.

Rissoa. — Since the publication of my last paper, Mr. Bell of the
Geological Survey, has shewn to me in that collection a Rissoa
with five distinct revolving bands, separated by a flattish space
from the suture. On comparison of this shell with my specimens
referred last year to R. minuta, I am inclined to think that they
are the same, but that the latter were worn, so as to present a
smooth surface. It is not unlike R. obsoleta of Wood's Crag
Mollusca. I have another little shell which closely resembles
Alvania ascaris of the same author, but it is too incomplete for
its certain identification.

Spirorbis spirillum. — This common species is found of small
size, attached to pebbles, at Beauport.

V. General Remarks.

In so far as general conclusions in Geology are concerned, the
observations of the past year do not in any way conflict with the
conclusions stated in my former paper.

The arrangement of the deposits at Logan's farm and Beauport,
confirms the subdivision which I have attempted to establish, of
an underlying non-fossiliferous boulder clay, a deep-water bed of
clay or sand (the Leda clay of Montreal), and overlying shallow-
water sands and gravels, the Saxicava sand of my former paper.
This arrangement shows a gradual upheaval of the land from it*

Post- Pliocene Deposits of the St. Lawrence. 39

state of depression in the boulder-clay period, corresponding
with what has been deduced from similar appearances in the Old
World. " The upheaval of the bed of the glacial sea," says
Forbes, " was not sudden but gradual. The phenomena so well
described by Prof. Forchhammer in his essays on the Danish
drift, indicating a conversion of a muddy sea of some depth into
one choked up with sand banks, are, though not universal, equally
evident in the British Isles, especially in Ireland and the Isle of
Man."*

We now have in all, exclusive of doubtful forms, 6kty-three
species of Marine In vertebrates from the Post-Pliocene or Pleisto-
cene clays of the St. Lawrence valley. All, except four or five
species belonging to the older or deep-water part of the deposit,
are known as living shells of the Arctic or Boreal regions of the
Atlantic. About half of the species are fossil in the Pleistocene
of Great Britain. A majority of the whole are now living in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence and on the neighbouring coasts; and I have
reason to believe that the dredging operations carried on by the
officers of the Geological Survey in the past summer, will enable
us to reeognize all but a few as living Canadian species. In so
far, then, as marine life is concerned, the modern period in this
country is connected with that of the boulder clay by an un-
broken chain of animal existence. These deposits in Lower Ca-
nada afford no indications of the terrestrial fauna ; but the remains
of Elepli/u Primigenius in beds of similar age in Upper Canada^
show that during the period in question great changes occurred
among the animals of the land; and we may hope to find similar
evidences in Lower Canada, especially in localities where, as on
the Ottawa, the debsris of land-plants and land-shells occur in the
marine deposits.

* Memoirs of Geological Survey.

f Reports of GeoL Survey; LyelTs Travel

40 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

ARTICLE IV.— Report on the Fisheries of the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence. By M. H. Perley, Esq., Her Majesty's Emi-
gration Officer at Saint John, N.B.*

Laid before the House of Assembly by command of His Excellency the Lieutenant
Governor, and ordered to be printed 8th March, 1849.

There is probably no part of the world in which such extensive
and valuable Fisheries are to be found, as within the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence. Nature has bountifully provided within its waters,
the utmost abundance of those fishes which are of the greatest
importance to man, as affording not only nutritious and wholesome
food, but also the means of profitable employment.

These Fisheries may be prosecuted as well in the open waters
of the Gulf, as within every Bay, Harbour, Creek, Cove, and Inlet
in connection with it. Whether on the bleak and sterile coast of
Labrador; or on the western coasts of Newfoundland and Cape
Breton ; or along the eastern shores of Nova Scotia and New
Brunswick ; or within the Bay of Chaleur; or around Prince Ed-
ward Island, Anticosti, or the Magdalen Islands, the Fisherman
may pursue his labours with nearly equal chances of success, and
the full prospect of securing an ample reward for his toil.

With such valuable and unlimited Fisheries in close proximity
to these Colonies, and as it may be said at the very doors of the
inhabitants, it is no less strange than true, that they are prosecut-
ed to the greatest extent, and with most profit, by citizens of
France, and of the United States.

The French exercise an almost exclusive right of fishing upon
the western coast of Newfoundland, the fertility and great mineral
wealth of which have only recently become known, and are not
yet fully appreciated.

From seven to eight hundred sail of America fishing vessels
enter the Gulf of Saint Lawrence annually ; and scattering over
the whole of its wide extent, with little heed of the limits to which
they are restricted by treaty, pursue their business unmolested,
and but rarely leave their stations without full and valuable fares.

The Jersey merchants also prosecute these Fisheries with great
zeal and assiduity, and, as it is believed, with much profit. They
have permanent establishments and Fishing Stations in Gaspe,

* This Report although issued ten years ago, contains the best ac-
count of the Fisheries of the Gulf at present extant. Believing it to be
important on account of the statistical and natural history information
that may be gleaned from it, we republish it without abridgement.

E. B.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 41

Labrador, and Newfoundland, and three or more establishments in
New Brunswick ; but they by no means confine themselves to
any particular locality. They employ upwards of one hundred
vessels almost exclusively in carrying the rich products of the deep
to various foreign markets, besides the smaller craft required upon
the coast. Two of the leading Jersey firms, Messieurs Robin and
Company, and Nicolle Brothers, are supposed respectively to afford
employment, directly or indirectly, to nearly one thousand persons.

The inhabitants of those shores of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia
which are within the Gulf, pursue the Fisheries in their immediate
neighbourhood to a moderate extent ; and a few of their vessels
visit the Magdalen Islands, and the Labrador coast, during the sea-
son. The people of Prince Edward Island, who are favourably
placed for securing a goodly portion of the riches of the sea, make
still more limited efforts ; but their efforts cm scarcely be describ-
ed as more limited, or more feeble, than those of the people of
New Brunswick, who dwell upon its shores, from Baie Yerte to
the western extremity of the Bay of Chaleur — those shores com-
manding as great an extent and variety of fishing ground, and as
abundant supplies of valuable fish of every description, as can be
found in any other part of the unrivalled Gulf of Saint Lawrence,
while they possess equal, and perhaps superior, facilities for prose-
cuting its Fisheries, both extensively and profitably.

The most valuable Fisheries of the Gulf are those for Herring
Cod, and Mackerel. But before entering upon the question of
their encouragement and extension, by increased facilities of com-
munication, it will be proper to give some description of each.
"With this view they will be taken up in the order of the fishing
season; after which, the secondary Fisheries of the Gulf will be
briefly noticed.

THE HERRING.

The common Herring (Clupea harengus) appears in the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence at the end of April, or early in May, and the fish-
ing continues until about 10th June, when they retire to deep
water, having deposited their spawn. These " Spring Herring,"
as they are termed, are taken in "set nets" along the whole
eastern shore of New Brunswick, around Miscou Island, and
within the Bay of Chaleur. Being caught while in the very act
of spawning, they are thin and poor, of little value as an article of
food, whether fresh or salted. Another Herring appears on the

42 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence,

coast about the 20th August, and remains in-shore for a month ;
these are fat and in good condition, furnishing excellent food, and
a valuable commodity for export. It is admitted, that when first
caught, these "Fall Herrings" are fully equal in every respect to
the best Scotch Herrings ; and if they were cured in the Dutch
manner, this Fishery, from the increased price, and demand, would
become one of the most important and valuable Fisheries of the Gulf.

The Herring is the animal delicacy of Holland, and there enjoys
a very different reputation, from that of the common salt Herring
of Britain or America ; yet the fish of both Holland and Britain
are the same, being caught on the same fishing grounds, and those
of North America are in no respect inferior.

The Dutch mode of curing Herrings is thus described by Mr.
Chambers, in his "Tour in Holland in 1838." " Immediately on
being caught, the Herrings are bled, gutted, cleaned, salted, and
barrelled. The bleeding is effected by cutting them across the
back of the neck, and then hanging them up for a few seconds by
the tail. By being thus relieved of the blood, the fish retain a
certain sweetness of flavour, and delicacy of flesh which unbled
Herrings cannot possibly possess, The rapidity of the process of
curing, must likewise aid in preserving the native delicacy of the
animal, for the Herring lies salted in the barrel, in a very few
minutes after it has been swimming in the water. I was assured
that the superiority of the Dutch Herrings is solely ascribable to
this mode of curing."

The greater mercantile value of the Dutch Herrings, on the Con-
tinent of Europe, being found to arisesolely from this modeof curing,
the Commissioners of the British Fisheries (in Scotland) were
induced to devote great attention to it, and to urge its general
adoption by every means in their power. Their officers and
inspectors were directed to brand every barrel of Herring, cured
according to the Dutch mode, with the figure of the Crown. In
their official Report for 1844, the Commissioners state that — " the
unprecedented demand from the Continent for Crown brand Her-
rings, is a sufficient proof of the care with which the integrity of
the brand is preserved, as well as of the high value which is set
upon it, in all the Continental markets. It was the strong conviction
impressed upon the minds of the Commissioners, of the vital import-
ance of preserving the integrity of the brand, which compelled
them to exercise the painful duty of dismissing from the service,
one of the Board's oldest officers. As he had branded a car°ro of

Fisheries of the Gulf of St, Lawrence, 43

Herrings, which afterwards went to Hamburg, where they were
complained of, as having been found unworthy of the brand, the
Board despatched the General Inspector of the East coast to that
place, in order that he might rigidly examine the contents of all
the barrels ; and on receiving an unfavourable report as to the
result of his investigation, the officer was immediately dismissed.
The effect of this prompt measure has been, to raise the character
of the brand even higher in the estimation of the Foreign Fish
Merchants, to whom the circumstances were generally known. It
is by the preservation of the purity of the official brand, that the
produce of the British Herring Fishery is to be upheld in charac-
ter abroad, and the demand for it largely extended in Foreign
Markets."

As a proof of the gradually increasing confidence which the
Crown brand received on the Continent, the Commissioners furnish
a statement of the number of barrels exported to the Continent,
during the preceding seven years, commencing with 57,388 barrels
in 1837, and annually increasing to 181,583 barrels in 1843.

The Commissioners further say — "An extensive export Mer-
chant has given it as his opinion, that if great care shall be continued
in the selection, cure, and official Inspection of the Fish, the Con-
tinent of Europe would consume more British Herrings than are
now caught in our fisheries. Although they have to contend with
all the disadvantages of a duty levied on them often shillings per
barrel, British Herrings are now brought into competition with
Belgian Fish in their own markets, and are annually diminishing
the sale of Dutch Herrings, by furnishing part of the supplies in
markets formerly entirely dependant on them. By this means
their pr'ce has been so reduced, that the number of " busses " fitted
out for the deep sea Herring Fishery, has been already considerably
diminished."

In their Report for 1845, the Commissioners say — "The
increasing demand for British Herrings of late years in Germany,
arises from their moderate price, their careful selection, their
superior cure and quality, and above all, from the security which
dealers have in the official brands. The general stipulation between
sellers and buyers is, to deliver and receive u Crown " " aud Full "
branded Herrings ; and Mr. Miller, the Inspector of the East
Coast, states in a Report made to the Board, of the information
gathered by him during a short tour of inquiry made by order of
the Commissioners, that he has the authority of a firm at Stetting

44 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

for stating, that they sold about 40,000 barrels of Crown and Full
branded Herrings last year, which were every where received with-
out objection. The Inspector found British Herrings at Berlin,
Wittemberg, Leipsic, Frankfort, Cologne, and Brussels; and he
saw several parcels in transit for more distant parts ; the barrels
were all Crown and Full branded, and the Fish were in fine
condition, all well meriting the official brand, and much approved by
every odc He frequently inquired for Dutch Herrings, and was
uniformerly shown British Herrings as Dutch ; and when he stated
that they were British, they always insisted that they were Dutch,
and they sold them as Dutch. So general is the use of British
Herrings on the Continent, that at Embden, where, a few, years
ago, fifty vessels were annually fitted out for the Fishery, and a
bounty of about £50 paid to each, the number of vessels was
reduced to twelve, notwithstanding the continuation of that bounty.
The Inspector General learned from the British Consul at Frank-
fort, that the navigation of the Rhine to Mayence, or Frankfort,
has not been attempted by vessels laden with British Herrings, in
consequence of the jealousy of the Dutch, who throw insuperable
obstacles in the way. Those Herrings which have been sent
thither, were transhipped at Rotterdam, when the charges levied
in Holland, proved to be almost prohibitory. But as the prospect
has arisen of immediate transport by a Canal connecting the Maine
with the Danube, the Catholic countries of Bavaria, Hungary,
and Austria, may be expected to afford new markets for our Her-
rings, when the navigation of the Rhine may be attempted, or
when the Railway from Antwerp to Cologne may be employed."
These extracts from official reports of the highest character,
show most clearly the increased value which the Dutch mode of
curing gives to British Herrings ; while the careful inspection, and
the rigid measures adopted to preserve the integrity of the official
brand, indicate in the strongest manner, the necessity for a similar
inspection in New Brunswick. At present, from the entire absence
of both skill and care, one of the most prolific and most valuable
Fisheries of the Gulf is rendered of the least value, and there is a
complete waste of the bounties of Providence. Herrings are taken
in the largest quantities, at a season when they are almost unfit to
be eaten, because they are then caught with the greatest ease, and
at least expense, and thousands of barrels are found of so little
worth, that they are used to manure the land, or are left to rot
upon the beaches.

Fisheries of the Gulf of Si. Lawrence. 45

In the autumn, when the Herrings are in fine condition, they
are taken during a few weeks only, because our fishermen are
quite ignorant of the proper mode of curing to render them of value,
and are not aware of the manner of using drift nets in deep water,
which is so successfully practised by the Herring Fishers of Loch
Fyne, and other noted stations in Scotland. By a similar manner
of fishing, our fishermen could continue to catch Herrings until the
latest period of the fishing season, and those taken last would be
of the finest quality. The mode of fishing by drift nets, is thus
described by Mr. Yarrell, in his admirable work on British Fishes :

"The net is suspended by its upper edge, from the drift rope, by
various shorter and smaller ropes, called buoy ropes ; and con-
siderable practicable skill isrequired in the arrangement, that the net
may hang with the meshes square, smooth, and even, in the water,
and at the proper depth ; for, according to the wind, tide, situation
of their food, and other causes, the Herrings swim at various
distances below the surface."

"The size of the boat depends on the distances from shore at
which the fishery is carried on ; but whether in deep or in shallow
water, the nets are only in actual use during the night. It is
found that the Fish strike the nets in much great numbers when
it is dark, than while it is light; the darkest nights, therefore, and
those in which the surface of the water is ruffled by a breeze, are
consicbred the most favourable. It is supposed that nets stretched
in the day time alarm the Fish, and cause them to quit the place
where that practice is followed ; it is, therefore, strictly forbidden."

Many thousands of barrels of the inferior " Spring Herring,"
are taken at the Magdalen Islands every season, at the period
when they approach the shores of these Islands to deposit their
spawn. They are then very poor, and as but little care is taken
in curing them, they often prove unfit for human food. They are
caught in large seines, which require 15 or 20, and sometimes 40
men to manage them ; and they are capable of enclosing, and
bringing to the shore, from 200 to 1000 barrels at a single haul.
When taken from these seines, it is the common practice to put
them in the holds of the vessels, without washing, bleeding, or
divesting them of their offal. They are salted "in bulk," as it is
termed, and so they remain until the vessel arrives at the Port
whence she sailed, whether in the Colonies, or in the United States.
They are then taken out and packed in barrels, sweltering in all
their impurity ; but whole cargoes frequently prove worthless as
food, and are used for dressing grass land.

46

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

The number of barrels of Herrings exported from the several
Ports in the Counties of Restigouche, Gloucester, Northumberland,
and Kent, during the last eight years, is thus stated : —

Ports.

1841
13

1842

1843

1844

1845

41

52

110

3732

49

1846 1847

1848jTotals.

Restigouche,
TJnthiirst

■ ■ • •

75

• • • •

280
28

• • • •

48

129

20

50

1080

• • • •

352

Caraquette,

Miramichi,

Richibucto.

26
140

87
346

16
219
100

437

1192

120

1749

396

1189

93

1753

1150

7898
410

179

Totals,

433

335

1150 3984

356

9939

A large proportion of the Herrings exported from the Miramichi,
are of the description best known as the Gaspereaux or Alewife,
(Clupea vernalis) which leave the Sea, and ascend most of the
Rivers of the Gu! f, to *pawn. They are a thin, dry fish, much
inferior to the Sea Herring when salted ; they find a market in the
West Indies, as from their leanness, they are less liable to spoil in
a hot climate than the fat Herring.*

From the preceding Table it appears clearly, that beyond fur-
nishing some portion of the food of the inhabitants of the Northern
Counties of New Brunswick, the magnificent and unlimited Her-
ring Fishery of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and Bay of Chaleur,
barely furnishes a sufficient quantity for export to prevent Her-
rings being: altoo-ether omitted from the Returns.

Of all the Fisheries of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, none could
be increased to a greater extent, or would furnish a more valuable
export, than the Herring Fishery, if placed under judicious regu-
lations, and conducted with greater skill and care. The manner
of taking Herrings by drift-nets in deep water, requires to be
generally known and adopted. At present, these excellent and
truly valuable Fish, which exist in the Gulf in myriads, during the
latter part of the season, when they are in the finest condition, are
only caught in sufficient quantities to furnish bait for Cod, and a
supply for domestic use.

The Dutch mode of curing also requires to be introduced, in order
that the full flavour and fine quality of the Fish may be preserved.
If cured according to this approved mode, and properly packed in

* Note in 1850. — Since this Report was first published, it has been as-
certained that Cuvier, and the Ameriean Naturalists, class the Alewife,
not as a Herring, but as a species of Shad, and designate it Mosa vernalis.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 47

barrels of hard wood, bearing an official brand, (on which full
reliance could be placed,) to denote the quality of the Fish within,
the Herrings of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence would find a ready
market throughout the whole extent of Canada, and would find
their way by inland navigation, and the Great Lakes, to the most
Western States of the Union, where there exists a large and con-
stantly increasing demand. To other parts of the United States,
and to Foreign Ports elsewhere, they might be profitably exported,
if they could reach Saint John, at all seasons, at a moderate charge.
The Herring Fishery of the Gulf would be more benefitted than
any other, by the construction of Railways, and the increased
facilities for communication which they would afford. No other
description of Fish would probably furnish so large an amount of
Railway traffic, as, if once properly established, this Fishery,
which can now be scarcely said to exist, might be prosecuted to
an almost unlimited extent.

THE COD.

The Cod Fishery commences from the 1st to the 10th June, and
continues until the end of November ; it may be prosecuted in
every part of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, to a greater or less
extent. The principal Fish caught, differs but little from the
Gadus morrhua, of Linnseus, or ash-colored Cod. There are
besides, two varieties, known as Gadus rupestris, the Rock Cod,
and Gadus arenosus, the Shoal Cod.

Near the Shores of New Brunswick, the best Fishing Grounds,
or rather, those most frequented, are from Point Escurainac to
Miscou, and thence along the Bay of Chaleur, to the Restigouche.

The inhabitants of the County of Gloucester prosecute the Shore
Fishery to a greater extent than any others on the New Brunswick
coast. Their principal stations are Miscou, Shippagan, Caraquet,
and Grande Ance. They go out in boats, from one to fifteen
miles from the land, in the morning, and when at the longer dis-
tance, do not return until the evening of the following day. The
boats have two fore-and-aft sails, and a jib; each boat is managed
by two men, and frequently there is with them a boy. Each man
has two lines, from 30 to 48 fathoms in length, and they are also
furnished with Mackerel lines, spare leads, and hooks. The boat
has oars, an anchor and rope, compass, and small oven for cooking ;
the cost is about £18 for each boat, with complete outfit. The
Fishermen generally build their own boats during the Winter : the

48 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

keel is of birch; the timbers of cedar; and the planks of pine or
cedar. A boat will last from six to eight years, and so will the
sails also, with care.

The quintal, by which Cod are always sold, is 1121b of dry fish.
It is considered a good day's fishing, at Miscou, for one of these
boats to take ten quintals of Fish, which they frequently do. When
first caught, 112 of the small fish, and 30 of the large size, are
reckoned to the quintal.

Nearly all the fishermen of Shippagan aud the Bay of Chaleur,
split, salt, and cure their own fish. When they do not, 2521b of
green fish, salted and drained, are given to a curer, to return 1121b
of merchantable dry fish.

The boats, as they return from the fishing banks, run alongside
a stage built over the water, upon which the fish are thrown out.
The first man that handles the fish cuts its throat with a single
stroke of his knife, and slides it along a sort of table to another,
who whips off the head, and throws it, with the entrails, through a
hole in the table, into the water underneath, retaining only the
liver, which is thrown into a tierce to make oil. The next man
splits the fish, and takes out the back-bone ; on the manner in
which these operations are performed, the quality of the Fish for
market, in a great degree depends. They are then washed, and
rubbed with salt, in which they remain for six or eight days ; then,
being again well washed, they are placed in what is called a
"horse pile," to drain. After draining twenty four hours, they
are spread out to dry on long narrow wicker frames or stages, set
up on purpose, called "flakes." They require to be frequently
turned to prevent their being " sun-burnt," or salt-burnt;" and
they cure in about three weeks, xt is not well to cure them too
fast ; they are best when dried moderately.

After the Fish are sufficiently cured, they are collected and laid
in small circles, with the tails outwards ; these circles are con-
tinually built upon, each row being larger than the one below it,
until the pile is about three feet high, when the circles begin to
diminish so as to form a conical roof; this is covered with birch
bark, and stones are placed upon it. The piles are thus rendered
impervious to the heaviest rains; and in this position, the Fish
are left to season before being packed for exportation.

The Bay of Chaleur Cod are more prized in the markets of the
Mediterranean, and, will, at all times, sell there more readily, and
at higher prices, than any other. They are beautifully white ; and

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 49

being very dry, can better withstand the effects of a hot climate
and long voyage, than a more moist Fish. The peculiarity of their
being smaller than Cod caught elsewhere, is also of great import-
ance as regards the South American market, for which they are
packed in tubs of a peculiar shape, called "drums," and into which
they are closely pressed by means of a powerful screw.

The usual baits for Cod on the New Brunswick Coast, and in
the Bay of Chaleur, are — Capelin, in the early part of the seasou
— and afterwards, Herring and Mackerel — when no other baits
can be had, Clams are used.

The capelin [Salmo groenlandicus)* is a beautiful little fish, from
four to seven inches in length, the under jaw longer than the upper,
the colour of the back greenish, the under surface of the body sil-
very. They usually appear about Miscou, and in the Bay of
Chaleur, early in May ; but sometimes not until near the end of
that month. The Cod Fishery does not fairly commence until
the arrival of the Capelin, which continue near the shores until
the end of July.

There has been great complaint of late years, in the upper part
of the Bay of Chaleur, of the falling off in the Cod Fishery, which
is said to be every year decreasing. At Carleton, Maria, New
Richmond, and other places on the Gaspe shore, the fishin r
establishments are deserted, and going to ruin. At these places
there was formerly an abundant supply of fish ; but the inhabitants
now barely catch enough for their own winter store.

This decrease is also felt on the New Brunswick shore. The
settlement of Petit Rocher sends out about 50 boats only, which
average a catch of 50 quintals each, during the season. The"
Pockshaw coast sends out a few boats, but they only fish occa-
sionally. The Caraquet and Shippagan boats, further clown the
Bay, take more than 100 quintals each during the season, which
are of better quality than those taken off Petit Rocher. The
decline of the Cod Fishery in the upper part of the Bay is attribut-
ed to the wanton destruction of the proper and natural food of the
Cod — Herring and Capelin — which are taken in immense quan-
tities ; not for immediate eating, or for curing, or for bait — but fc r
manuring the land !

In a representation made to the Canadian Legislature by a fish-
erman of Gaspe, it is stated, that this fisherman has seen five

* This is the Mallotus villosus which occurs so well preserved in the
fossil state near Ottawa.

4

50 Fisheries of the Gulf of St, Lawrence.

hundred barrels of Capelin taken in one tide, expressly for manure ;
and that he has also seen one thousand barrels of Herring caught,
at one time, and not taken away, but left to rot upon the beach.

It has been remarked in the Bay of Chaleur, that owing to this
waste of the smaller fish, the Cod Fishery recedes, as agriculture
advances. The lazy farmer, who thinks he can increase the fer-
tility of his land by a single sweep of his seine, does so at the
expense of the fisheries, although a bountiful Providence has
furnished the shores with inexhaustible quantities of kelp and sea-
weed, and other valuable manures, which really enrich the soil
while it is admitted that the use of fish greatly deteriorates it.

The Legislature of Canada has been strongly urged to make it
a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, for any per-
son to use either Herring or Capelin as manure ; and such a
measure would seem to be highly desirable in New Brunswick.
To be effective, there should he similar regulations on both sides
of the Bay of Chaleur.

The deep-sea fishery for Cod is not prosecuted to any great
extent in the Gulf by the people of New Brunswick. A few
schooners proceed from the Fishing Stations in the County of Glou-
cester, already mentioned, to the Bradelle Bank, about fifty miles
from Miscou. In the summer of 1839, H. M. S. Champion, in
sailino- from the East Cape of Prince Edward Island to the Bay of
Chaleur, (crossing the Bradelle Bank) passed through a fleet of
600 to 700 sail of American fishing schooners, all engaged in Cod

fishing.

The vessels of Gaspe frequently resort to Anticosti, off the
eastern end of which Island, Cod are often taken in great abun-
dance and of good quality.

The excellent fishery on the Labrador Coast is prosecuted almost
wholly by the Americans, and by vessels from Newfoundland,
Canada, and Nova Scotia. The vessels usually employed are
schooners of TO or 80 tons burthen, and they arrive on the coast
about the end of May. Every part of the coast is frequented by
fishino- vessels during the season, from Mount Joli, at the southern
boundary of Labrador, to the northern extremity of the Straits of
Bellcisle. On reaching the coast, the vessel enters some snug
harbour, where she is moored, and there remains quietly at anchor,
until a full fare, or the departure of the fish, requires the Master to
seek another inlet, or return home.

The fisher} 7 is carried on entirely in boats, and the number
found most useful is one for every thirty tons of the vessel ; there

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

51

are two men to eacli boat. If fish are in plenty, and not too dis-
tant from the vessel, they are expected in good weather to get two
loads each day. The return of the boats with fish is the signal
for the dressing crew, who remain on board, to commence their
operations. If it is intended that the vessel shall remain on the
coast until the fish are ready for market, they are taken on shore
as caught, and there dressed, salted, and diied, before being put on
board the vessel. But it is the more common practice, especially
with vessels from the United States, to salt the fish on board, and
take their cargoes home in a green state, drying them after arrival.

The vessels from Nova Scotia and Canada, in general, carry
their cargoes home in a green state.

About three hundred schooners from Newfoundland resort to the
Labrador Coast every season, during which they usually make
two voyages. When they first return from the coast, they take
home a cargo of dry fish ; but on the second return voyage, a
considerable proportion of the fish in a " green " or pickled state,
and is dried at Newfoundland.

The Labrador Coast is indented every where with excellent
Harbours, which have been frequented for a very long period.
From the security of these Harbours, and the general certainty of
an ample supply offish, this coast is preferred by many fishermen
to any other Fishing Station within the Gulf.

The average produce of this fishery may be estimated at ten
quintals of dry fish to every ton of the vessels employed ; but the
Masters of the American schooners are dissatisfied when they fail
to catch 12 or 13 quintals per ton. Tiie baits are principally the
Capelin and the Herring, both of which abound on that coast.
The Herrings taken at Labrador, in the latter part of the season,
are considered very fine : yet they are not caught as a chief object
of pursuit, but merely as an adjunct to the Cod Fishery.

The quantity of dried Cod exported from New Brunswick Ports,
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, during the last eight years, is thus
stated in quintals : —

Ports.

1841

• ■

7770

• •

7770

1842

1843

500

8670
300

..

9470

1844

• •

8841

150

40

9031

1845

• •

7456
70

• •

7526

1846

1847

1848

Totals.

Dalhousie, . .
Bathurst, . . .
Caraquette, .
Miramichi, . .
Richibucto . .

• •

50
9638
486

• •

• •

11,673

272

25

• •

* •

8672

1398

270

1,091

14,678

298

• •

500

1,141

77,398

2,974

325

Totals,

10,174

11,970

10,340

16,067

82,438

52 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

From this Return it appears, that the export of dried Cod from
the Northern Ports of New Brunswick, is chiefly from Caraquette.
This export is made almost wholly by the Jersey Houses of Robin
and Co., and Le Boutillier, Brothers, of Paspediac in Gaspe, and
Alexandre and Co., of Shipp:>gan, to Brazil, Spain, Portugal, Sicily
and the Italian States. The export of Cod from the Gulf of St.
Lawrence to Foreign Markets, is a branch of business which the
Merchants of New Brunswick have yet to learn.

The quantity of dried Cod exported to Foreign Countries from
the District of Gaspe, during the past year (1848,) is thus stated
from official Returns : —

Gaspe Basin, 41,269 Quintals.

New Carlisle, 46,523 do.

Total, 87,792 Quintals.

The whole quantify of Dried Cod exported from New Brunswick
during the last eight years, is exceeded by the quantity exported
from Gaspe during the year 1848 only, by 5,414 quintals.

There is reason to believe, that a considerable proportion of the
Cod exported from New Carlisle, is caught on the south side of
the Bay of Chaleur, and about Miscou, the fishing grounds being
better near the New Brunswick Shores, than on the Gaspe side of
the Bay.

The quantity of dried Cod exported from Newfoundland in 1845
was 1,000,333 quintals, of which one-sixth was the produce of the
Fishery on the Labrador Coast.*

The whole line of the New Brunswick coast from Shediac to
Escuminac, around the Bay of Miramichi, and thence along the
shores from Tabusintacto Shippagan and Miscou, offers the greatest
facility for prosecuting either the in-shore, deep-sea, or Labrador
Cod Fishery. There are numerous harbours, creeks, coves, lagoons,
for boats and vessels of every size and description ; the beaches
are admirable for drying Fish, and there is abundance of wood at

* The French employ 360 vessels, from 100 to 300 tons each, with
crews amounting to 17,000 men, in the Newfoundland Fisheries. Their
annual catch of Cod averages 1,200,000 quintals. The Government
bounty is eleven francs per quintal, which is fully the value of the article
itself. A French vessel for the Bank Fishery, of 300 tons, has a crew of
at least 40 men, and from 7 to 9 heavy anchors, with 800 fathoms of hemp
cable, and 4 or 5 large boats, capable of standing heavy weather.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 53

hand for the construction of stages and " fish-flakes." The soil
too, is generally excellent, and owing to the flatness of the coast,
the shore is every where easy of approach. For the establishment
of Fishing Stations by Merchants of capital and skill, or the
organization of Fishing Colonies on an extensive scale, this coast
offers rare advantages.

The Bay of Chaleur likewise possesses many advantages for the
prosecution of the Fisheries. The whole Bay may be considered
one great Harbour, as throughout its entire breadth and extent,
there is not a single rock, reef, or shoal. During the summer, ifc
literally swarms with fish of every description known on the shores
of British North America ; and its ancient Indian name of " Eck-

etaun Nemaaohi " — the Sea of Fish — well denotes its character.

g

The facilities for ship building are very great on the New Bruns-
wick side of this Bay. The timber is of excellent quality, and
noted for its durability, more especially the larch, which is
amounted equal to any in the world. Mr. MacGregor, M. P. for
Glasgow, late Secretary to the Board of Trade, in one of his offi-
cial Reports to that Board, says — " The larch-built vessels of the
Bay of Chaleur are remarkably durable. A vessel belonging to
Robin and Co., which I saw at Paspediac in 1824, I went on
board of again in 1839, in the port of Messina, where she was then
■discharging a cargo of dry Codfish, to fee 1 the Sicilians. This
vessel, then more than thirty years old, was perfectly sound."

The "bultow" mode of fishing for Cod, introduced by the
French at Newfoundland, and now being adopted by the English
residents there, might very probably be followed with advantage
by the fishermen dwelling on the New Brunswick coast.

The "bultow" is described as a long line, with hooks fastened
along its whole length, at regular distances, by shorter and smaller
cords called snoods, which are six feet long, and are placed on the
long line twelve feet apart, to prevent the hooks becoming entan-
gled. Near the hooks, these shorter lines or snoods, are formed of
separate threads, loosely fastened together, to guard against the
teeth of the fiwh. Buoys, buoy ropes, and anchors or grapnels, are
■fixed to each end of the line ; and the lines are always laid, or as
it is termed " shot" across the tide ; for if the tide runs upon the
end of the line, the hcoks will become entangled, and the fishing
will be wholly lost. These "set-lines" have been some time in
use on the coast of Cornwall, in England, and the mode is there

54 Fisl Levies of the Gulf of St. Lawrence

called " bulter " fishing* A gentleman connected with the Bri-
tish Fishery Board, has suggested an improvement, in fixing a
small piece of cork within about twelve inches of the hook, which
will suspend and float the bait, when it will be more readily seen by
the fid). If a bait rests upon the ground, it is sometimes covered
with sea weed, and often devoured by Star fish, Crabs, and Echini.
In a petition from the inhabitants of Byrant's Cove, in New-
foundland, to the Legislature of that Colony, in 184G, it is stated,
that the "bultow " mode of fishing had been introduced in that
vicinity in the previous year, at first by a single line, or "fleet"
as it is termed, of one hundred hooks ; and this proved so success-
ful, that before the end of the season, seventy five fleets were used,
some of them three hundred fathoms long. The petitioners repre-
sent, that the set-line, or "bultow, 1 ' is the best mode of fishing
ever introduced in those waters, as being less expensive in outfit,
an 3 in keeping boats in repair. They state that a set-line will
last three years, and with care even longer; that the total expense
of fitting one out, with a gross of hooks, is only fifty shillings ; and
that it is not moved during the season, nor taken up, except for
overhauling and baiting, until the fish move out in the deep water
in the autumn. The petitioners add, that the fish taken by the
" bultow "■ are larger than those taken by the hand line, as also
superior in quality ; and that it was a common thing, during the
preceding season, for one and a half quintals of fish to be taken ofif
a gross of hooks, in overhauling the line of a morning. It appears
that the lines are overhauled, and fresh baits placed on the hooks
every morning and evening ; and it is set forth as an advantage of
the " bultow," that if the fisherman leaves it properly baited in
the morning, it is fishing for him while he is at work in his garden ;
whereas, by the other mode, if he was not on the ground, he could
not expect fish. The petition then proceeds thus: "Your peti-
titioners therefore pray your honorable House to cause the following
rules, or something like them, to pass into law, as like all new
inventions, the set-line, or " bultow," has to struggle against many
hindrances, from ignorance, and bigotry to the old method, yet, as
your Petitioners have endeavoured, to show, the "bultow' 1 has
proved itself, what may be fully termed, "The Poor Man's
Friend.

* Mr. Wallop Brabanon, in his work on the Deep Sea Fisheries of
Ireland, says this mode of fishing is much practised on the West Coast
of Ireland, wheie it is called "spilliard," or "spillet" fishing.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 55

The rules which the Petitioners pray may become law are simply
that the fishing grounds may be divided into two parts, one for the
" bultow," and one for hand-line Fishermen ; that the u bultows,"
shall always be set parallel with each other, that they may not get
foul, and may take up as little room as possible ; and, lastly that a
pefson conversant with this mode of fishing, may be appointed to
enforce these rules, and to instruct those who are not acquainted
with the method, in the proper manner of fitting out and setting
the " bultow." The Petitioners conclude bv stating their belief, that
if their suggestions are carried out, the boats now used in the Shore
Fishery will, in three years, give place to the" bultow " throughout
Newfoundland, as they have already done in Byrant's Cove.

For the Deep-sea Fishery, the " bultow " is of great length. The
French fishing vessels chiefly anchor on the Grand Bank of New-
foundland, in about 45 fathoms water, veer out one hundred fathoms
of cable, and prepare to catch Cod, with 2 lines, each 3000 fathoms
in length. The snoods are arranged as previously desciibed, and
the hooks being baited, the lines are neatly coiled in half bushel
baskets, clear for running out. The baskets are placed in two
strong built lug-sail boats, and at three o'clock in the afternoon,
both make sail together, at right angles from the vessel, on opposite
sides ; when the lines are run out straight, they are sunk to within
five feet of the bottom. At day break next morning, the boats
proceed to trip the sinkers at the extremities of the lines, and while
the crew of each boat are hauling in line and unhooking Fish, the
men on board heave in the other end of the lines, with a winch.
In this way, four hundred of the large Bank Cod are commonly
taken in a night. The Fish are cleaned and salted on board, and
stowed in the hold in bulk ; the livers are boiled to oil, which is
put in largo casks secured on deck. The French vessels engaged
in this Fishery, are from 150 to 300 tons burthen ; they arrive on
the Grand Bank early in June, and on the average, complete their
cargoes in three months. In fine weather, the largest class of
vessels frequently run out three or four "bultows" in different
directions from the ship, and thus fish 10,000 fathoms of line, or
more, at one time, with a proportionate number of hooks.

Should this mode of fishing be approved, measures might be
devised for promoting its adoption near the shores of New Bruns-
wick.

If circumstances should arise to induce the prosecution of the
Cod Fisheries of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, on a more extensive

56 Proceedings of the Essex Institution, Salem.

scale, some regulations will be necessary for an efficient inspection
of dried fish intended for exportation to Foreign markets, in order
to give a character to the commodity, and prevent carelessness in
curing. On this point, the Commissioners of the British Fisheries,
in their Report for 1844, say — " It is very gratifying to observe,
that there is a gradual increase in the annual export of dried Cod
to Spain, where a most extensive market for the consumption of
this description offish, may be fairly looked for, in the course of
some years. This can only be obtained by unremitting care on
the part of the Board's officers, in their inspection and punching
of the fish, the Spaniards being very particular in regard to the
excellence of the article they purchase. The Commissioners have
judged it right to order an improvement in the form of the official
punch used for stamping the dried Cod and Ling, and instead of
that lately used, which cut a square figure out of the tail of the
fish, for which some private marks used by curers were liable to be
mistaken, they have adopted a crown, which is less liable to be
imitated."

Besides Cod, there are several species of fish of the same genus,
caught in the Gulf, in the prosecution of the Cod Fishery. These
are — the Haddock (Gadus ceglefinus) — the Hake (Gadus merlu-
cius) — and the Torsk, or Tusk, (Gadus brosme.) These fish aie
cured in the same manner as Cod, to which, however, they are
inferior. They are known commercially as " Scale Fish ;" and
on the average, they sell at about half the price of Cod.

The Cod fishers in the Gulf often take the large flat-fish, known
as the Halibut, (Hippoglossus vulgaris of Cuvier) which sometimes
attains the weight of 300 lbs. The flesh, though white and firm, is
dry, and the muscular fibre coarse. These fish are cut in slices,
and pickled in barrels, in which state they sell at half the price of
the best Herrings.

(To be continued?)

REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS,

Proceedings of the Essex Institution, Salem, Mass. Vol. II.,
Part I. 1856 to 1857.
We have perused this volume with the greatest pleasure. The
annual Report of this Society which it contains gives evidence of
much life and energy in the prosecution of Natural Science and of
History. The aggregate number of its members is three hundred

Proceedings of the Essex Institution^ Salem. 57

and seventy-eight. During the year it held thirteen evening
meetings for the discussion of subjects connected with the objects
of the Institute. These meetings commenced on the 8th Nov.,
and continued on the 2nd and 4th Mondays of each month. Tift
interest manifested in them, we are informed, gave assurance of their
utility. The Society possesses a liberary and museum of great
value and interest. During the year a Horticultural Exhibition
was held under its auspices. From the report of the Ornithological
Committee, we find that the collection is in good condition and well
arranged, comprising 209 mounted specimens of North American
Birds, containing 148 species ; 137 specimens of foreign birds,
12 of foreign bird's nests; 74 do. do. eggs, containing 41 species
determined; also 23 species contained in 72 specimens not de-
termined ; 50 specimens, containing 32 specimens of American
Bird's nests ; 200 specimens of American bird's eggs, containing 81
species, not including about 27 species contained in 50 specimens
of undetermined ones. This seems to be a favorite department-
Large additions have been made to it by donations during the year.

In the Ichthyological section, we find the committee, while
complaining somewhat, yet reporting the large number of 263
specimens of American fishes, embracing 26 families, 61 genera,
and 80 species; of foreign fishes there in all 144 specimens, em-
bracing 62 species. In Mammalia the collection is certainly very
poor, containing only 48 specimens, exclusive of duplicates. In
the department of Botany there appears to be a good Herbarium
in excellent order, gradually expanding and increasing in value.
We note these things to show what can be done by a few zealous
students of Natural History.

We would notice as worthy of imitation by our own Society?
the appointment by this Institute of curators, not only of special
departments, but of sections of each department ; — e. g. in the
Historical department there are curators in Ethnology, in M.SS.,
and in the Fine Arts. In Natural History there are curators in
Botany, Mammalia, Ornithology, Ilerpetologv, Ichthyology, Com-
parative Anatomy,Articulata,Mollusca, and Kadiata, for Mineralogy,
Geology, Paleontology. This division of labour in the hands of
real lovers of the magnificent and beautiful works of the Creator?
is the true method of success and progress.

Another feature of this Institute which we deem well worthy
of commendation, is that of its field meetino-s during the favour-
able seasons of the year. The record of one runs as follows*.

5S Proceedings of (lie Essex Institution, Salem,

"Field Meeting at Topsfiekl, an exploration of the ponds, streams
and woods, such as the extreme heat would permit, having been
made by several members in the forenoon, a session was held at
3*0' clock in the Hall of the Academy." Another runs. "Field
Meeting at Danvers. A very warm day, ending in a thunder-
shower and much rain. The morning was spent in examining the
woods, near the residence of Wm. A. Lander, to whose hospitable
reception and welcome to his grounds the party were greatly
indebted." Why may we not have such meetings in Montreal ?
We surely do not lack either enthusiasm or scientific knowledge
to render them both interesting and profitable ? A day spent
upon our Mountain by an intelligent band of explorers, such as
we might muster, could not fail to be both healthful and profit-
able. Another on St. Helen's island, or at Isle Jesus, or Bel ceil, or
among our quarries, or fifty other places, would be also delightful.
To such excursions many merchants and professional men would
we doubt not, be allured from the toils of their daily work. They
would be sure to get their bodies refreshed, and their knowledge
of places, persons and things greatly enlarged.

Many of these papers contained in the " Proceedings" of the
Essex Institute are of much value. They are remarkably weU
edited. The style in which most of them are written is very pure
and good ; we say much when we say that it is English of a good
type. We might expect this from Massachusetts, and from a city
that lies under the literary shadows of Boston. It is so pleasant
to find American writings free from national and provincial cor-
ruptions that we cannot avoid marking this excellency in these
"Proceedings" and appending to it our note of admiration.

The Historical and Scientific lore which the volume contains
is considerable. We would especially instance as valuable the His-
torical paper by S. P. Fowler of Danvers, embracing an elaborate
and minute account of the life, character, &c. of the Rev. S. Parris
of Salem village, and of his connection with the Witchcraft de-
lusion of 1692. This Biography extends over nineteen closely
printed pages, and is of deep interest. It portrays the character
of a learned, laborious, and withal sagacious divine. It depicts
also the characteristics of the people among whom he lived, and
the rise of the curious delusion into which they were drawn by
the crafty, the wicked and the credulous.

Another paper, of much botanical interest, was read before the
Institute by the Rev. I. Russel, being a review of a book entitled : —

Proceedings of the Essex Institution, Salem. 59

" New England's Varieties Discoverd, in Birds, Fishes, Serpents
and Plants of that country. Together with the Physical and
Chirurgical Remedies, wherewith the Natives constantly use to
cure their Distempers, Wounds and Sores, &c. <fcc. By John
Josselyn, Gent. Second Addition, London, 1675."

The Reviewer's object is, chiefly to identify the plants contained
in the list, observed by Josselyn. These are classified (1) into
such plants as are common to the two countries, England and
America. (2) Such as are peculiar to America, and which had a
name. (3) Such as belong to the country, but had no name.
With few exceptions the plants described are identified with much
interesting criticism and some valuable historical notes. As a
specimen of this paper we quote from page 104 : — "Hollow-Leaved
Lavender, (Sarracenia purpurea). The description of this fine
plant, " proper to the country," and really worthy of being one
of "New England's Varieties Discovered," is so unique that I
shall transcribe it at length. — There is also a very good figure by
which the plant in question was easily recognised, " Hollow T -Leaved
Lavender is a plant that grows in (Salt) Marshes, overgrown with
moss,with one straight stalk about the bigness of an oat-straw,better
than a cubit high ; upon the top standeth one fantastical flower ;
the leaves grow close from the root in shape like a tankard, hollow,
tough, and always full of water, the root is made up of many small
strings, growing only in the moss and not in the earth ; the whole
plant comes to its perfection in August, and then it has leaves
stalks and flowers, as red as blood excepting the flower, which
has some yellow admixt. I wonder where the knowledge of this
flower has slept all this while i. e. above forty yeais T'

" This the purple Side Saddle flower is one of the finest and
most ornamental of our native plants, and well known for its singu-
lar beauty." " Parkinson's Theatre of Plants," was published in
1640, while John Josselyn Gent's Treatise w r as published in 1675,
(the former contains a good figure and description of this plant,)
so that our author seems to have " slept all this while in ignorance
of the lTollow-Leaved Lavender, rather than as he supposes others
about him had done. The term Lavender is probably expressive
of the form of the leaf: lavo lavendum, to wash, etc. Quere —
hence the derivation of pitcher plant, or forefather's pitcher, or
Tankard and the like ?"

We would only further refer to a report by a committee of the
Institute on the question of " Lightning conducting rods." This

60 WiM Flowers ; how to see and how to gather them.

paper we deem of so much practical value that we have transferred
t entire to our pages, recommending it to the careful perusal of
those of our readers, who are interested in the preservation of
ships or houses from injury by lightning.

From this imperfect review of these Proceedings of the
Essex Institute, it will be manifest that its labours during the
year have been highly fruitful. Its original papers we hesitate
not to say, are real contributions to knowledge, and worthy of a
place in any scientific library. On reading them we have asked
ourself, Why could not Montreal produce something of equal
value and interest as this ? It is not for the want of men that we
do not. Science is represented among us by names of European
celebrity, and we have several Amateurs of ability and zeal.
There is therefore the material ; of this fact no one can doubt —
why is it then that we cannot as a Natural History Society occu-
py a higher place than we do ? The reason obviously is that with
but one or two honorable exceptions, our Scientific men whom we
honor and of whose works we are proud, stand almost entirely aloof
from our Society. We have men of liberal education and scien-
tific culture, not a few in our good city, who if they would but as-
sociate themselves together to advance the cause of literature and
Science would, we are persuaded, do incalculable service to the
city and Province. Why should the Canadian Institute of Toronto
be better off in this respect than we are? It embraces most, if
not all the men of science and literature in the city, and the result
is, that its light is shining with ever increasing brightness. If our
Natural History Society is not suitable for the rception of our
savans and cognoscenti, let it be reformed, or let a new one be in-
stituted of a kind more suitable to promote the objects of science.
Let not the reproach hang upon us that we are little better
than a nominal society. We have now erected a more suitable
building for our Museum, Meetings and Lectures. We trust, that this
will be the means of attracting many new members and of adding
to the ranks of old workers many lovers of Science who will be
something more than ornamental members of the time honored
Natural History Society of Montreal.

Wild Flowers : how to see and hoiu to gather them. With re
marks on the economical and medicinal uses of our native
plants. By Spencer Thomson, M.D. New edition, revised ;
with illustrations from designs by Noel Humphreys. Lon-
don : G. Routled^e & Co. Montreal : B. Dawson & Son.

The Life of Linnceus. 61

This work is written by one who has a true love of nature and
an intimate knowledge of her floral kingdom. Its chief design
is to lead the mind to the study of the subject of which it treats
in deeper and professedly more scientific works, and to present
in as interesting and comprehensible a form as possible, such a
view of the vegetable kingdom as could be illustrated by the
plants and flowers of Great Britain. The author has succeeded,
we think, in writing a book that will be sure to interest young
minds, and amateurs, in the observation of those lovely, and, at
the same time, most accessible of God's created works — the wild
flowers of the field. He says truly in his preface, and to this we
cordially subscribe, "that the time is coming fast when no man
or woman will be considered properly educated who is ignorant
of the leading facts, at least, of the natural sciences, and when the
knowledge and study of these natural revelations from God will
rank second only to a knowledge of the higher revelation He ha s
given as of Himself." After an interesting and lively introduc-
tion the author, in the first part of the hook, enumerates and
describes the various organs of a plant, their arrangements and
development. In part second he gives a brief but lucid explana,
tion, amply illustrated, of the Linnrean and Natural systems of
classification. Part third contains a monthly illustration of Bri-
tish wild flowers, into which are introduced particulars of much
interest to those who are entering upon the study of Botany.
There are concluding chapters on the flowerless plants and on the
economical and medicinal properties of those native to Britain.
The book contains one hundred and seventy-one good w r ood-cut
illustrations. It is one of Kouiledge's cheap series of publications
and is an instance of what is doing at the present day by enter,
prising writers and publishers to biing the highest productions of
science and literature within the reach of persons with limited
incomes. We cordially recommend this work as one of great
merit and deep interest. Its style is remarkably lively and clear
and its aim highly commendable.

A Life of Linnceus. By Miss Brightwell, of Norwich. Lon_
don : John Van Voorst. Montreal : B. Dawson & Son
Pp. 191.

This little book gives a most interesting account of the life o*
the great Swedish Naturalist. It begins with his childhood and
youth in the parsonage of Stenbrohult in Smceland, a piovince in

62 Geological Survey of Canada.

^he south of Sweden, and carries the reader on in the most pleas-
ing manner through the chief incidents that marked the life of
Linnaeus, to his final eminence. The story is told with great sim-
plicity and elegance. The incidents are skilfully wrought into
the narrative. The prominent excellences of this great man's
character and genius are lovingly noted. There is no elaborate
statement or discussion of his system to perplex young readers,
enough, however, is related to excite admiration and awaken inter-
est. The book is besides pervaded with a genuine, unaffected
piety, and a true love of nature, which renders it very delightful
reading for a winter's evening. To the young we would expressly
recommend this Biography. It sets before them an example of
perseverance in a chosen pursuit, and shows what may be done
by a zealous devotion to any department of study which invites
attention. The authoress concludes her pleasing task with a few
words recommendatory of the studv of Botanv. As a mental
exercise she particularly commends it, "What study," says she,
«• is calculated to afford more delightful instruction, at once grati-
fying a taste for beauty and training the youthful mind to thought
and observation. Affording too the most healthful gratification
and innocent enjoyment, its pleasures spring up beneath our
feet, and as we pursue them, reward us with simple and pure joys.''
The book is beautifully printed and carefully got up, and will
both recompense cost and perusal.

Geological Survey of Canada. Report of Progress for 1857.

As a branch of literature, Geological Reports are in some
respects in a pitiable position. Necessarily dry in their details,
and to many readers scarcely intelligible, they are too often
thrown into dusty corners of libraries, where they lie unread and
uncared for. Occasionally they fall into the hands of critics
more witty than wise, who can see no advantage in the expendi-
ture of public money in the investigation of fossil remains of shell-
fish and such trifles ; not considering that in thus despising the
handiwork of their Maker, they would deprive us of an important
aid to the discovery of those deposits of useful minerals in which
all men, however little scientific, are interested. In these circum-
stances it becomes one of the duties of Journals such as this, to
point out whatever of utility there may be in these somewhat
forbidding documents.

Geological Survey oj Canada. 63

The field-work of the present report belongs to the able assist-
ants whom the head of the Survey has gathered around him, and
for the selection of whom he merits all praise. Sir William
Logan himself was chiefly employed in arranging the chaotic
mass of specimens that had accumulated in the apartments of the
Survey, and in securing to Canadian science whatever benefits
could be obtained from the meeting of the American Association
in Montreal ; after which he managed to spend a few weeks in
unravelling the tanojed skein of those old Laurentian rocks to
which of late he has so much devoted himself.

We are surprised that the arrangement of the Museum occu-
pies so small a place in this Report. It has involved an amount
of labour appreciable only by those who know the difficulty of
arranging large collections. In its present state, the Museum of
the Survey may, in its lucid and orderly arrangement, challenge
comparison with any similar collection ; and affords a systematic
exhibition of the geology and of the mineral resources of Canada,
which will be read with pleasure by thousands who derive little
benefit from printed reports. It would be well in some future
Report to give a description and a plan of the Museum, which
might also be printed separately as a guide to visitors.

Mr. Murray was occupied with the Huronian formation of the
North shore of Georgian Bay, the equivalent of the Cambrian of
English geologists, and the chief seat of copper-mining in Canada.
His explorations had reference principally to the di*tribution of a
band of limestone, which was taken as a guide mark in tracing
out the relations of these crumpled and shattered formations.
This limestone has accordingly been traced over a consider-
able extent of ground, and, with the section which Mr. Murray
has made across the country, gives a view of the general arrange-
ment of those rocks which we did not previously possess, and
which will materially aid in tracing out the mineral deposits in
their continuation in new localities. The writer of this review
spent a day or two, two years since, in puzzling over the intricate
distribution of rocks and veins at the Bruce Mines, with the aid
of the previous reports on the district and would have been
thankful then to have had Mr. Murray's map and section for a
companion. The general section of the Huronian rocks given
by Mr. Murray will be of interest to the geologist, and ought to
be in the hands of every one who " prosoects " for mines on Lake
Huron. It is as follows in ascending order : —

64 Geological Survey of Canada,

Feet.

1. Green altered slates of a chloritic character, 1000

2. Greenstone, , 400

3. Greenish silicious slates, interstratified with pale greenish

quartzite, 1200

4. Slate conglomerate, 1000

5. Limestone, 250

6. Slate conglomerate, 800

7. Dark blue or blackish fine grained slates, with dark grey

quartzite, 500

8. Whitish or whitish-grey quartzite, passing into quartzose con-

glomerate with blood-red jasper pebbles, 1000

9. Greenstone, 700

6850
The copper veins appear to be confined, at least in their more
productive portions, to the greenstone bands. The limestone
occurs at the shore near the Bruce Mine, in the rear of the same
location, and in a long band extending along the Thessalon River,
and thence across E<mo Lake and to the north shore of Little
Lake George.

Mr. Richardson's work lay in the Peninsula of Gaspe, and had
for its object the ascertaining of the precise boundaries of the
Lower and Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks, with the view of
accurately delineating these in the forthcoming geological map.
The. details of the coast sections on most parts of this peninsula
were very carefully worked out many years ago by Sir William
Loo-an, as we have had occasion to know b} T following his footsteps,
bed by bed, over some parts of the coast. Mr. Richardson had
to run lines of section across the country, and trace out the ex-
tension inland of the beds seen on the shore. His sections and
map accordingly give a very clear idea of the general structure
of the fossiliferous rocks of Gaspe. The Gaspe sandstones of
Devonian age, which contain the remarkable fossil plants re-
ferred to in another page of this number, form a long trough
extending through Gaspe Bay, and reaching, with few interrup-
tions, nearly as far as the valley of the Magdalen, a distance of
fifty miles. They rest on the great limestone of Cape Gaspe,
probably Upper Silurian, and this again is placed unconformably
on the edges of sandstones, conglomerate, limestone, and shale,
belonging to the Middle and Lower Silurian, which form the
long ranges of cliffs extending westward from Cape Rosier. The
plant-bearing Gaspe sandstones thus rest on the limestone, exactly

Geological Survey of Canada. 65

like coal measures on the carboniferous or mountain limestone,
and, were it not for the fossils and the relations of the sandstones
to the southward, they might easily be mistaken for coal mea-
sures. Another portion of Mr. Richardson's Report is occupied
with the record of a short reconnaissance of the Silurian lime-
stone which appears at Lake St. John at the head of the Sague-
nay, accompanied as usual by fertile soil. The occurrence of
these rocks here is interesting, as an indication of the recurrence
of the fossiliferous formations in an outlvino- basin in the midst of
the great area of Laurentian metamorphic rocks which bound culti-
vable Canada on the north.

The Palaeontology of the Report is wrought out by Mr. Billings
and Professor Hall of Albany. As we have already published in this
Journal the greater part of both reports, it is unnecessary to
refer to them here, except by way of general remark. Prof.
Hall's paper on Graptolites is a valuable contribution to palaeon-
tology. These curious fossils are very characteristic of certain
portions of the Lower Silurian series, and therefore important to
geologists in classifying these rocks; but their true nature has
been very obscure. The unusually perfect specimens obtained by
Sir W. E. Logan have enabled Prof. Hall to represent for the
first time their general forms and the arrangement of their parts,
though he still expresses a doubt as to their affinities. It seems
however almost certain that they were intended to float freely in
the sea, bearing along the numerous little animals inhabiting the
cells on the sides of their branches, and which were very pro-
bably allied to the Bryozoa.

Mr. Billings gives us an elaborate comparison of the fossils of
the Black River limestone in Canada with those of the same for-
mation in New York, confirming and extendino; the fact ascer-
tained by Sir William Logan some time since, — that the fossils of
this formation in Canada graduate into those of the Trenton lime-
stone. Mr. Billings has also commenced the study and publication of
the fossils of the Devonian series in Western Canada, and de-
scribes in this report a number of new species and some new
genera of corals and mollusks from these and the Silurian rocks.

We are glad to see so much of tin- \l< port occupied with palae-
ontology, and trust that this will be continued and increased.
(Jntil the engagement of Mr. Billings, this was the weak point of
the Canadian Survey; and as our geological readers very well
know, no reliable work can be done in geology without attention
to fossils. Obvious though this is, however, we are inclined to
. Nat. Vol. IV. No. 1

66 Geological Survey of Canada.

insist on it here ; because, while every person knows the value of
economical geology, comparatively few are aware of the intimate
relation which palaeontology bears even to this more utilitarian
artment. Fossils are in truth the readiest means for identi-
fying rock formations, and are indispensable to any satisfactory
comparison of Canadian geology with that of other countries.
Does some speculator insist that the Gaspe or the Trenton limestone
is the equivalent of the English mountain limestones, and the
overlying sandstones and shales coal-measures, a comparison of the
fossils ^t once convicts him of his error. Is a vein of lead-ore
discovered in a Canadian formation, ahd is it important to ascer-
tain if the bed containing it corresponds geologically with those
of the lead regions of Missouri or Wisconsin, it may be quite
impossible lor the geological surveyor to trace its line of outcrop
into those regions, but a few fossil shells may settle the point.
Does a foreign geologist wish to compare the geology of Canada
with that of his own country, he can have confidence in the
identification of formations only if their fossils have been carefully
and accurately examined. Independently of all this, there is the
duly which lies on Canada as a civilized country to contribute
her share to the elucidation of the records of creation, in so far as
these have been inscribed on her own rocks. She is not asked
to pay for explorations to discover a north-west passage or ex; .lore
the Antarctic seas ; but it will be a lasting disgrace if she cannot
work out the natural history and physical geography of her own
territory. Nor must the knowledge of fossils be confined to the
officers of the survey and die with them. It must be published
and illustrated by good figures, so that, once done, it may remain
for future reference, and thus become a permanent addition to the
scientific literature of the country. Times may change, and
editorials and acts of Parliament may become waste paper ;
but rocks and fossils are permanent things, and work once well
done in reference to them is sure to retain its value. Additions
may be made to it, but the substratum will remain good. Nay,
it will increase in value; for as a native Canadian literature
arises, popular writers will take hold of it; and here, as in Eng-
land, we shall have pleasant and instructive popular books grow-
ing out of what are now dry descriptions and lists of fossils. It
may be said that the palaeontology of the country would in time
be explored and published by amateurs ; but this would be an
affair of centuries; and in the mean time even the industrial

Geological Survey of Canada, 67

interests of the country would suffer from lack of tins kind of
knowledge. There is besides a vast amount of drudgery to be
done, which no amateurs will ever undertake, but the execution
of which opens up the way for them. The writer has himself
worked at some little points of Canadian geology, of which, but
for the labours of the Survey, he would perhaps not have known
the existence, and from which these labours had already removed
the preliminary difficulties. A stimulus is thus given to ori-
ginal investigation by -private persons; and there are not yet
enough of labourers to occupy the openings already presented.
Not to be tedious in this matter, we hope what Sir William
Logan is now doing for Canadian palaeontology will be appre-
ciated in such a manner as to induce him still more extensively
to prosecute this very important department of his work.

Prof. Hunt's portion of the Report is occupied with two dis-
tinct subjects ; — one, a contribution to the solution of an intricate
problem in theoretical geology which has more or less baffled
previous enquirers; the other, an enquiry into the value of lish
manures and the inducements to their manufacture in Canada. In
the first part Mr. Hunt has summed up the principal facts in the
history of dolomites or magnesian limestones, and has described
with many analyses -a great number of there rocks occurring in
various formations in Canada. He then considers the theories
which have been proposed to explain the formation of these rocks,
and rejecting them all as untenable, maintains that the carbonate
of magnesia was precipitated mixed with carbonate of lime, and
finally united directly with it to form a dolomite. The conditions
of this precipitation are illustrated by a series of experiments
upon the action of solutions of bi-carbonate of soda on sea-water,
and of bi-carbonate of lime upon waters holding sulphate of
magnesia. In the latter case by an unexpected reaction there
are formed under certain conditions, gypsum and bi-carbonate of
magnesia. These researches form a part of a series of investiga-
tions in which Mr. Hunt is engaged on the chemical conditions of
geological deposition and metamorphism, and which we hope he
will one day combine in a systematic treatise on the subject.

Of the second subject, the fish manures, we shall attempt no
summary, as the paper itself is reprinted in this number. It
should be copied into all the agricultural journals, and extensively
circulated. The three tacts, that in all the old and run-out soils
of Canada, phosphates and ammonia are urgently required ; that

68 Geological Survey of Canada.

these substances are actually worth to the farmer for manure 10
and 20 cents per pound ; and that immense quantities of fish
garbage, capable of affording these valuable substances, are annu-
ally wasted in the fishing districts, — should lead to some practical
action in the matter. Some years ago we strongly urged this
subject on the attention of the farmers of one of the maritime
provinces. A manufactory now exists in Newfoundland ; and we
hope the time is coming when the culture of wheat may be
restored to old farms by the liberal application of this manure.

A new feature in this report is the appearance of Mr. Bell's
observations on the living fauna of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It
has often been remarked, in the press and elsewhere, that without
much increase of expense the Geological Survey might collect
an immense amount of information on the zoology and botany
of the province, and more especially on the geographical distri-
bution of its animals and plants. The introduction of the subject
in the present report is a small step in this direction, and gives
promise of useful work. Mr. Bell is a very young man, the son
of the late Rev. Mr. Bell of L'Orignal, himself a geologist, whose
collection, very ingeniously arranged, is now in Queen's College.
He has in him the material of a good naturalist, and we hope to
meet him in many succeeding reports laden with new facts on
the distribution of the invertebrates of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

On the importance of the observations of longitude, by Lieut.
Ashe, it is unnecessary to say anything, except that they remind
us of the forthcoming map, on which so much of the labour of the
survey is at present concentrated. One part of the report, how-
ever, is zoological, and relates to certain recent animals of singular
habits. " My past experience," says Lieutenant Ashe, " had
taught me to avoid the tops of houses, and to select the solid
earth and solid rock for the support of my transit instrument.
Still I had another lesson to learn. This neighbourhood was
infested with boys, who when they saw a light shining through
the cracks of the boards, commenced throwing stones with a
determination and precision worthy of a better cause ; and some
of the few clear nights that occurred in this month were lost in
consequence of boys' love of mischief. I first tried mild entrea-
ties, and then severe threatenings ; they laughed at the former,
and made faces at the latter. I then procured the service of the
police, who partly succeeded in keeping the boys from further
interference with my duties."

Miscellaneous. 69

This narrative raises the question, which is applicable not only
to the Kingston boys but to other assailants of the Survey, whe-
ther their ire was excited by the little light which they saw
"through the cracks," or by their want of more light on the sub-
ject. This is, in some sense, an educational question; and leads
to a remark on the circulation of scientific reports, which we
think has throuo-hout the United States and British Colonies been
greatly mismanaged. Such reports, got up as attractively as pos-
sible, should be placed in the hands of the trade, with a fair com-
mission on their sale; and the gratuitous distribution should be
limited to public persons and institutions. In this way a much
greater and better circulation would be secured, the reports would
be more extensively read and appreciated, and would be more
accessible to those who really require them, and a large portion
of the expense of printing might be saved. This course has been
successfully pursued by the Geological Survey of Great Britain.
It has also, we are glad to observe, been adopted in the case of
the decades of Canadian fossils ; and we can scarcely doubt
that these will eventually be found even remunerative as a pub-
lishing speculation, though the sale may be too slow to enable
them to be profitably issued by private enterprise.

j. w. D.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Geological Society of London. — The Meeting of this Society,
on the 5th January, was occupied principally with Canadian
subjects : a paper, by Principal Dawson, on the " Devonian Plants
of Canada," and one by Mr. T. Sterry Hunt, on some points of
Chemical Geolocrv.

The paper on Devonian plants related chiefly to the observations
made by the writer last summer in Gaspe, which enable him to
describe two species of a new genus, to which he gives the name
Psilophyton. They are Iycopodiaceous plants, with many dicho-
tomous branchlets and rudimentary leaves, allied in some respects
to the modern genus Psilotum, but springing from a horizontal
rhizome, similar to that of some ferns, and having the branchlets
rolled up circinately in vernation. Plants of this kind in fragments,
have been recognized previously in the Devonian rocks of Scot-
land and the continent of Europe, but were referred to sea-weeds,
&c. The Gaspe specimens, for the first time, enable their true

70 Miscellaneous.

nature and affinities to be made out. Two specie?, P. princcps
and P. rob'tstius, were described. A fossil conifer, first found in
Gaspe by Sir W. E. Logan, was referred to the Taxinece, and
described under the name of Prototaxites Logani. A lepido-
dendron (L. Gaspianuin) and two species of Knorria, one not
distinguishable from K. imbricata, were added to the Devonian
flora of Canada ; as also a Noeggerathia, of which fragments only
were obtained. The paper also described the mode of occurrence
of the small Devonian coal seam, discovered by Sir W. E. Logan
in Gaspe, probably the oldest true coal seam known. The occur-
rence of impressions of rain-marks, sun-cracks, &c, in these beds,
was also noticed.

Professor Hunt's paper contained an elaborate exposition of those
views of his on the mode of metamorphism of rocks by chemical
changes in the presence of water and a moderate amount of heat,
which are already in part known to our readers.

We hope, at some future time, to reprint bo:h papers, or abstracts
of them, in the Naturalist.

Canadian Institute op Toronto. — New Trilobite. — In the
Number of the Canadian Journal for January, Professor Chapman
describes a new Canadian trilobite, and the Hypostoma of his
species, described in a former article, the Asaphus Canadensis*
The new species is named after the Professor of Natural History
in the University of Toronto, A. ffincksii. It is distinguished from
the other Canadian species of Asaphus, as indicated in the follow-
ing tabular summary of characters : —

Caudal shield with seg-^ He ^ d - ai ^ le3 terminating in long points.-^,
ment furrows I Canadensis.

( Head-angles rounded. — A. Halh.

Caudal shield smooth. 5 £! eune CU1 ™S forwards -^. platycephalus.

( rleurae curving backwards. — A. Hincfcsn.
q . f Head-angles terminating in horns ; pjgidium

Pleura curving back- \ J™™™<i.^. Canadensis.

warc l s Head-angles slightly rounded ; pygidiuin

[ smooth. — A. ffincksii.
Pleura? curving for- $ Pygidium furrowed. — #. Haiti.

wards. £ Pygidium smooth. — A. platycephalus.

Entozoa. — The same number contains a long article on those
remarkable creatures, the internal parasites, that infest man and
other animals, by Lucius Oiile, M.B. It professes to be mainly a
summary of the results of Von Siebold and Kuchenmeister, but
is well deserving of the study of medical students and young
naturalists. The writer very properly scouts the idea of the gt ne-

Miscellaneous. 71

ratio equivoca, attributed by old writers to these creatures; but
which is so directly contradicted by their enormous reproductive
powers and the curious metamorphoses which some of them are
known to undergo. He also well maintains their use in nature, as
physicians, rough it may be, but necessary to apply sharp remedies
to unnatural modes of life. The cestoid entozoaor tape- worms are
these of which the history is best known ; and they are ascertained
to be in their young state the little cystic entozoa that take up
their abode in the fl sh and other tissues of animals. What
can be more strange than the transformation of the little micros-
copic entozoon of the liver of a mouse into the tape-worm of the
cat, and the eggs of the tape-worm again finding their way into
the food of the mouse, and thence into its flesh or liver; or what
more curious than that the Cysticercus celluloses, which causes
"measles" in hogs, rabbits, and sheep, is only the young state of
the Tcenia solium which infests the intestines of man, and that
man and these domestic animals reciprocally supply each other
with these pests.

"The scolex of the taenia solium and the cysticercus cellulosse are
identical. This is apparent from the similarity in anatomical struc-
ture and from experiment It has now been determined beyond
controversy that by feeding the hog, rabbit and sheep with the
eggs of the taenia solium those animals became infested with the
cysticercus cellulosse, and by feeding the dog and man with those
cystic worms, tape-worms were produced in their intestines. The
abundance of evsticerei in the hoo- is well known. Statistics
abundantly prove the frequent occurrence of tape-worm in butchers
who are accustomed to handle raw meat and are not over careful
or cleanly, but often by their hands or knives rubbed in their
mouths introduce the cystic worms into their system. It is also
common among those who eat in any manner raw or imperfectly
cooked meat contaminated with the cysticerci. The Hottentots
in the Caffir wars demonstrated the mode of translation of the
cystic worms into the suitable nidus for the final stage of develop-
ment, namely, the intestine. Those people in the invasion of the
enemy's territory feasted according to their barbarous fashion upon
tiie cattle and sheep that were captured, and became greatly
infested with tape-worm, whilst previously they were mostly
exempt."

The history of these creatures may be shortly stated as follows : —
1. The Proglottis or full-grown joint loaded with ova, passes

72 Miscellaneous,

from the intestinal canal of the animal infested by tape-worm, and
creeps to a little distance, depositing its eggs in grass, in water, &c.

2. The ova being devoured in the food of some animal, are
hatched into Embryos, microscopic in size, and furnished with
little hooks, by means of which they penetrate into the vessels and
are carried to different parts of the system.

3. They become developed into the stage of the resting scolex,
in which they are little sac-like objects, on which heads or scolices
armed with hooks and suckers are developed.

4„ The flesh of the animal infested by these scolices, now known
as Cysticerci, is eaten by some carnivorous- animal, in whose intes-
tines the little parasites fasten themselves, and become developed
into tape-worms, producing new proglottides.

Such are the strange provisions made by a benefieient Creator for
the life and welfare of creatures, in themselves most loathsome to
us ; but like all other parasites and plagues, intended to teach us
lessons, both physical and moral, which man has been too slow to
learn, and, from neglect of which, both he and his domesticated
animals must probably long continue to suffer. The subject is, in
many respects, an uninviting one; but of great importance in
natural science and hygiene, and, for this reason, we desire to give
our mite of encouragement to any ©ne who follows it up in the
right spirit.

Agassiz on a Museum of Natural History. — A magnifi-
cent scheme, for the promotion of Natural History, is now under
consideration in Boston. Prof. Agassiz, having declined the
tempting offers made to him by the Emperor of the French, tikes
advantage of the opportunity to invite the attention of his adopted
country to a scheme, by which the capital of Massachusetts may
become the centre of Natural History education in America. The
plan includes the erection of a museum on a magnificent scale,
and the institution of curatorships to be eventually erected into
chairs of Natural History. It is wise and far-seeing, and, we
hope, will be warmly taken up by the Bostonians, who are alive
to the importance of attracting to their city young men desirous
of scientific education, and have already been, with this view,
munificent patrons of their University. Our little attempts in
Canada, in erecting museums and forming provincial and other
collections, dwindle into small matters compared with the grand
conception of the Swiss naturalist. We quote his own words, in
a memorial to the Committee of the Lawrence Scientific School : —

Miscellaneous. 73

"In its present condition, the museum hardly furnishes me the
specimens I require for my courses of instruction, for, in conse-
quence of the daily accessions which are heaped upon those already
crowded in this narrow space, it is often impossible to find what
is wanted at the time, and it is out of the question to allow free
access to the museum in its present confused state, to any student
not already trained in the manipulation of specimens. Had I six
or eight rooms of the size of the two now at my disposition, I could
at least make a fair beginning of a systematic arrangement, sepa-
rate the duplicates from what is to constitute the collection proper,
allow free access to the rooms for the public as well as the stu-
dents, and thus create a more general interest for this establish-
ment, while the students themselves would derive all the advan-
tages which such a collection ought to afford them in their studies.
At the same time, the separation of the duplicates from the col-
lection proper would furnish ample materials for an extensive sys-
tem of exchanges with other institutions of the same kind, by which
the collection would at once be at least doubled in all its parts,
and in some of its departments increased three or four times, and
in some, even tenfold. The advantages of such a system of
exchanges are very obvious, and my inability from want of room to
separate the duplicates from the collection, has already been, for
some years past, a check upon its increase. I hope, therefore, that
as soon as it is fully understood, some remedy for this evil may be
found.

"But even the possession of an appropriate building wiU
not altogether put an end to our difficulties. The collection is
already so large that it is impos>ible for me to take charge of it
alone, even were I to give all my time to its care. For many
years past I have already been under the necessity of having one or
two, and at times even three assistants, who, at my private expense^
have been, most of the time, engaged in taking care of the speci-
mens. As I have nothing in the world but what I earn daily, such
an expenditure has frequently been for me a source of unendurable
anxiety, of which I wish to free myself, that I may hereafter devote
whatever energy I may possess untrammelled to the higher interests
of science. In this perplexity I have thought that a number of
curatorships, corresponding to the scholarships now existing in the
University, which enable young men, whose private means are
insufficient for such an object, to receive a college education,
might perhaps be founded by some of our wealthy citizens, which

74 Miscellaneous.

would furnish a small income to students who have alreat.lv taken
their degree, and who, wishing to prosecute farther their stuclie's
under my direction, might thus earn the means of remaining in
Cambridge by assisting in the arrangement and preservation
of the collection, as well as in making the exchanges. The p< sir
tion of the Curators in the scientific school would thus be similar
to that of the tutors in the undergraduate department. In a well-
organized museum there should be as many curators as there are
branches in zoology, including embryology ,palaeontology and zoolo-
gical anthropology. In the course of time, these curatorships (to
which should be attached the duty of delivering a certain number
of lectures annually) may be endowed so as to afford the means
of appointing special professors for each branch, and as soon as this
is accomplished, our organization would be more perfect than that of
either the British Museum or the Jardin des Plantes. Beside the
curators, there should be one or two preparators, to mount specimens,
and to make the necessary preparations required for the illustra-
tion of the specimens. It would also be desirable to have an artist
attached to the establishment who would have to make magnified
drawings of such specimens as are too small to be at once studied
by the natural powers of the eye ; these drawings would be appro-
priate ornaments for the corridors, and at the same time assist iu
the courses of lectures which it should be the duty of every curator
to deliver annually upon the special branches entrusted to his
care.

" Gigantic as this scheme may appear, I see nothing visionary
or unpractical in it; for, while it cannot be expected that so many
curatorships should be founded at once, it is plain that they are
not all needed now, and that the same person may take charge of
several departments simultaneously for several years to come, and
a subdivision of labor may be introduced as it becomes necessary,
and our means make it possible. It would, however, be desirable
that the services of four or five curators should be obtained soon,
— one to take charge of the vertebrates, one of the mollusks, one
of the articulates, one of the radiates, and one for the embryolo-
gical department; and I would add that the sooner the latter
curatorship is permanently founded, the better for our institution,
as I believe that the methods I am attempting to introduce in the
study of animals by comparing their different stages of growth
with the permanent forms of lower types, is likely to be a most
original feature in this museum, and that which is likely to secure

Scientific Gleanings, 75

for it a place among the institutions which shall contribute largely
to the real advancement of science. Let me add, with respect to
the lectures to be delivered by the curators, that, while they
would be a means of progress for themselves in their studies, they
would also learn the difficult art of teaching, and prepare them-
selves to occupy higher situations in this or other Universities.

" While we must wait until the means are secured for founding
professorships in the different departments of zoology, I believe
that it will be easy to enlist the sympathy and co-operation of all
the men in the country, who have acquired for themselves a high
position as original investigators in the various departments of
Zoology. Honorary degrees are conferred, all the world over, by
learned institutions on men distinguished for their attainments.
It would be equally honorable to our university, and to the distin-
guished naturalists of the country, if it should please the corpora-
tion to grant to such men the title of honorary professors of this
university. Until we can have a faculty of resident professors,
we can at least have one of honorary professors ; and I know
those who, gratified by such an honorable distinction, would not
hesitate to come to Cambridge annually for a short time, and
give to our students the benefit of their knowledge, by delivering
short courses of lectures in their respective departments."

Twenty-eighth Meeting op the British Association for the advance-
ment of Science. — Geological Section.

The Ossiferous Cavern at Brixham. — A paper on this subject
was read by Mr. W. Pengelly, but not published in the Athenaeum
fiom which our extracts are made. Fortunately W. A. Bovey
Esq., Advocate of this city, has a letter from his father, who lives
upon the spot in which the following passage occurs, which he
has kindly permitted us to copy.

" I must not forget to mention a discovery recently made in
our town, resulting from the Commons Inolosure Acts. We sold
a portion of Windmill Rea Common, immediately over Mrs.
Francis to a Mr. Philp for building purposes. On blowing out
the rock for a foun l.ttion, they came in upon a cavern ; the floor
of which consisted principally of calcareous stalagmite, very solid
and compact. On exploring it, a very large stag's antler was
found imbedded in it, and several bones of the elk, fox, cY/c. (fee.

A party of scientific gentlemen from Torquay subsequently ex-
plored it, and obtaining a grant of money from the Geological

76 Scientific Gleanings.

Society, (London), they purchased the right of working the cavern
from Mr. Philp, for £50. A person from the Isle of Wight has
been now engaged in it for a considerable time, and upwards of
2000 specimens of bones of extinct mammalia have been found in
the various deposits forming the bed of the cavern. Just imagine
such remains, the teeth, jaws, femurs, <fcc. &c. of the Elephant,
Rhinoceros, Hyrena, Bear, &c, being entombed within the mass
of lime-rock forming the hill behind the spot over which you
have played many a time. When first the cavern was opened,
it was not more than from 2 to 3 feet in depth, from the stalacti-
tic roof; but on removing the stalagmite that forms the floor,
they found a deep deposit 15 or 16 feet deep. All this has been
removed so that the cavern is very large."

The most curious circumstance connected with the exploration
of this cavern, is the discovery of flint knives in the bone bed.
No human relics ever having been hitherto found mingled with
the bones of extinct carnivora. According to the present theory
of Geology, or at least, the most generally received notices of
Geological time, the human period did not commence until long
after the extinction of those mammalia. Nothing has hitherto
been found to shew the contemporanity of man with those ani-
mals. Hence the discovery of those knives has given rise to much
discussion among the Geologists. Some assert that they must
have been either placed there by some one on purpose, or have
accidently been mingled with those bones by diluvial action <fcc.
&c. Others again contend for a higher period of human antiquity.
After Mr. Pengelly's paper, Prof. Ramsay read a report from
the Local Committee at Brixham, from which it appeared that
Dr. Falkner had found amongst these ossiferous remains the bones
of the rhinoceros, boa, horse, reindeer, cave-bear, and hyama, and
also several well-marked specimens of flint-knives, generally
regarded as of Celtic manufacture .

Prof. Owen said he was glad that means had been taken for the
frozen together into one contiguous transparent mass, although
careful exploration of this cave, but it would be premature to raise
any hypothesis until the whole of the parts were before them.
He had not yet seen any of the bones, and indeed was entirely
indebted for what he knew on the subject to the paper which Mr.
Pengelly had read, and he should refrain, therefore, from express-
ing any opinion, but he wished to caution them against coming
to any conclusions as to the antiquity of these remains which were
really not warranted. He proceeded to show, from the remains

Scientific Gleanings, 11

of tigers, elephants, and other animals found in this country, in
Siberia and other parts of the world where the climate was much
colder than was supposed to be compatible with their existence.
That there was undoubted evidence that these animals could adapt
themselves to cold and temperate climates as well as to torrid
ones, and remarked that the conditions of animal life were not
tho.-e of climate, but of food and geniet, wherever there was the
prey undisturbed by man, there also would be the destroyer.
They had evidence from the writings of Julius Caesar, of the exist-
ence of England, 2000 years ago, of three distinct species of
animals, including two gigantic species of ox, and one of the
reindeer, and he was himself satisfied that thev had once a native
British lion, all of which however, were now extinct in this country,
and he saw nothing in the remains which had been discovered at
Brixham to lead him to suppose that the animals lived before the
historic period, or which was inconsistent with the concurrent
existence of a rude race of barbarians. At the same time he was
open to conviction, and would be very glad to see a good fossil
human being, which should prove that man had been much longer
upon the earth than historical evidence led them to suppose.

President — "W. Hopkins, Esq.

The President said the existence of mammalian life in its earlier
stages on the surface of our planet, the condition of its existence,
and the period of its introduction, have always furnished ques
tions of the highest philosophical as well as palaBontological inter-
est. You will be aware that some geologists regard each new
discovery of mammalian remains, in formations preceding the
older tertiaries, as a fresh indication of the probable existence of
mammalia in those earlier periods in which no positive proof of
their existence has yet been obtained ; while others regard such
discoveries only as leading us to an ultimate limit, which will
hereafter define a period of the introduction of mammalia on the
surface of the earth, long posterior to that of the first introduc-
tion of animal life. Be this as it may, every new discovery of
the former existence of this highest class of animals must be a
matter of great geological interest. An important discovery of
this kind has recently been made, principally by the persevering
exertions of Mr. Beckles, who has detected in the Purbeck beds
a considerable number of the remains of small mammals. The
whole of them are, I believe, in the hands of our President, Prof.

78 Scientific Gleanings.

Owen, for the determination of their generic and specific charac-
ters ; but Dr. Falconer seems already to have recognized among
. them seven or eight distinct genera, some of them marsupial, and
others probably placental, of the insectivorous order. I may also
notice, as a matter of great palaeontological interest, the recent
discovery of a new Ossiferous Cave, near Brixham, in Devonshire,
of which some account is to be brought before us durino this
meeting. The past year has been fruitful in palaeontological re-
search i.

The subject of the motion of glaciers is one of interest to
geologists, for unless we understand the causes of such motion,
it will be impossible for us to assign to former glaciers their proper
degree of efficiency in the transport of erratic blocks, and to dis-
tinguish between the effects of glacial and of floating ice, and
those of powerful currents. An important step has recently been
made in this subject by the application of a discovery mnVle by
Faraday, a few years ago, that if one lump of ice be laid upon
another, the contiguous surfaces being sufficiently smooth to insure
perfect contact, the two pieces in a short time will become firmly
/the temperature of the atmosphere in which they are placed be
many degrees above the freezing temperature. Dr. Tyndall has
the merit of applying this fact to the explanation of certain glacial
phenomena. There are two recognized ways in which the motiou
of a glacier takes place : one by the sliding of the whole glacial
mass ever the bed of the valley in which it exists ; and the other
by the whole mass changing its form in consequence of the pres_
sure and tension to which it is subjected. The former mode of
progression is that recognized by the sliding theory ; the second
is that recognized by what has been termed the viscous theory of
Prof. Forbes. The viscous theory appeared to be generally recog-
nized. Still, to many persons it seemed difficult to reconcile the
property of viscosity with the fragility and apparent inflexibility
and inextensibility of ice itself. On the other hand, if this pro-
perty of viscosity, or something of the kind, were denied, how
could we account for the fact of the different fragments, into
which a glacier is frequently broken, becoming again united into
one continuous mass ? Dr. Tyndall has, I conceive, solved the
difficulty. Glacial ice, unlike a viscous mass, will bear very little
extension. It breaks and cracks suddenly ; but the separate pieces
when subsequently squeezed together again become by regelation
(as it is termed) one continuous mass. After some general re-

Scientific Gleanings. 79

marks on the cause of the laminous structure of glaciers, during
which he remarked that there was no doubt Dr. Tyndall was
right in supposing the laminae of blue and white ice to be perpen-
dicular to the directions of maximum pressure, he said that it
remained to be decided whether the explanations which had been
offered were correct ; but the actual perpendicularity of the laminae
of ice to the directions of maximum pressure within a glacier, and
the probable perpendicularity to those directions of the laminae in
rock masses of laminated structure, would seem to establish some
relation between these structures in rocks and glacial ice, giving
an interest to this peculiar structure in the latter case, which it
might not. otherwise appear to possess for one who should regard
it merely as a geologist.

SECTION OF ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President — E. Baixes, Esq.
The President said — If the British Asiociation were a theatre
for intellectual display, I should shrink from occupying a chair in
which T have had such distinguished predecessors. But if I un-
derstand the spirit of this Association, it is the simple, honest,
earnest pursuit of truth — first, of truth in facts, and secondly, of
truth in principles ; and it would be quite foreign to that spirit
either to attempt anything of display or to apologize for its ab-
sence. I shall be permitted, however, to welcome the d ; sciples of
economical and statistical science on their visit to this important
centre of industry where practical illustrations may be found of
many branches of their subject, and where, I hope, there are
many who can value their inquiries. After the remarks made
last night by the President of he Association, it may seem super-
fluous to say anything further on the claims of that science which
he pronounced to "bear more immediately than any others on
the prosperity of nations and the well-being of mankind." We
must all have felt how unanswerably the President proved the
value of economical and statistical science, when he referred to
the department of vital statistics, and showed what terrific losses
had been sustained by our army and navy and the army of France
from the neglect of sanitary rules. But I may just remark that
what gave to the recent report of Mr. Sidney Herbert's Commis-
sion on the health of our troops in barracks its resistless force was,
the certainty and precision with which statistical researches ena-
bled it to measure the amount of loss sustained, by comparison
with the mortality in other classes of the population at the same

80 Scientific Gleanings*

ages. The report might have dwelt on sickness, on injudicious
diet, on defective ventilation, on want of drainage, and so forth,
and all such statements would have been pronounced to be exag-
gerations or errors : but when it applied the ascertained scale of
mortality, so as to prove that there were so many deaths in the
thousand when there ought only to have been half that number,
the definiteness of the figures and facts defied evasion, fastened on
the public mind and conscience, and compelled immediate mea-
sures of reform. Those persons who have ignorant! y charged
upon political economy and statistics a disregard of moral consi-
derations and of humanity may now see how egregiously they
were mistaken, and how the arithmetic which they thought so
heartless is rising up as the most powerful advocate of the value
of human life, of health, of domestic comfort, of temperance, of
virtue, of proper leisure, of education, and of all that can purify
and elevate society. I am glad to know that we shall have one
or more papers on important points of vital statistics laid before
this Meeting. May I for a moment refer to another reproach
thrown upon statistics, namely, that they may be so used as to
prove anything? I hardly need say that it is unfair to argue from
the abuse of a thing against its proper use. But it may be admit-
ted, that there is sufficient grouud for this reproach, in the negli-
gent or dishonest use sometimes made of statistics, to call upon
us for the exercise of great caution, so that in the first place we
may be sure we have got all the facts that are essential, and in
the next place that we draw from them sound and accurate con-
clusions. I cannot refrain from expressing my conviction that as
the science we cultivate has been shown to be favourable to
humanity, so it is no less favourable to freedom. Within the last
quarter of a century how busy has it been in knocking off all
sorts of fetters from human energies !

The note on the cover of the December number of the Natu-
ralist, in reference to Art. XXX. of our last volume, has, we find,
been misunderstood. It was intended merely to remedy an
omission of our own. In copying the article in question from the
Canadian Journal, we omitted to copy with it the acknowledg-
ment to the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the wood-cuts,
which were originally prepared for that institution ; and also to
state that the article was based on that in the report of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1850, but brought up to 1858 for the
Canadian Journal. We regard this more full statement as due
to both the bodies to which we have been indebted in this matter.

MONTHLY METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER, SAINT MARTIN'S, ISLE JESUS, CANADA EAST, (NINE MILES WEST OF MONTREAL,) FOR THE MONTH OF OCTOBER, 1858.

Latitude, 45 degrees 32 minute? North. Longitude, 73 degrees 36 minutes West. Height above the level of the Sea, 118 feet.

BY CHARLES SMALLWOOD, M.D., LL.D.

"5

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10.

C. Str.

077

137

B71

. : i

520
829

26 1
18 '3

30 7
817

30 "0
16

12S
057

1 12
149

US

1171

H7
7J

89
84

89

S3

E. N. E.
W.

S. S. E.
W. by N.

3.

173
29-65

7 17
11 on

2 11)
S 02

2 55
70

10.

Snow.

O. Str. 4.

Snow.

Char.

7yj

419
517
624

700
150
597
519

091
512
714
670

6
16*0

2; l

31 '5

2".
36 7

50 9

38 "1

18*6

35 I
29

36

18 "9

043
074
108
149

117

100
117
142
165
058

Ii77
117
128
10]

071

7S
B2
86
84

71
80

si
7::
.-,11

76

so.
77
90
70

\v. s. w.

w.

N". W.
\V. S. W.
W. N. W.

W.

N.E.

W. 1

\Y. S. W.

\V. N. W.

V. by N.
f. N.E.

y.

V. s. w.

V.

1 90

11 S3
29 :.-.
7 ill
19 90

119

10 on
27, 02

11 18

27 '77

3 JO
Is 44
12-20

s 33
14-29

0. Str.

10.

s.
8.
10.

7.

8.
Snow.
O. Str. 0.

0.

i tear.
O. Str.
Clear.

''.sir.

Inapp.

l-

832
7. ;
803
881
667

747

701

■

578

.v. i

801

7S3
950
562

G27

19 '2

22 4
191

20 '1
27*2

36 t

37 i
35 2
27 6
519

27*3
26 "2
23 '6
26 2
22 3

H77 Hi7

128

12.
1 15
135

095

71
79

78
79
88

80
88

83

7:1

82

87
89

9:!
79

w.

S.E.
N'. by E.
H. E. by E

N.E. byE.

\y. s \v.

S.E.

E.

N.E.byE. .

N. 1

7. S W.

f. E, by E.
V. by N.

11 35

ii ul
Il 07
S 75
2t 81

it 00
012
15 63
1 '63

s i;
i. 35
1 33
9 ill
12

Cirr.
C.Str.

Snow,

C.Str.

6.
10.

4.

0.
Clear.
C. Str. 10.

Snow.

17. Str. 2.

[ear.
OL Str.

072
031

129

162
129
135

(I '30

10.

681

- 7G1
952
670

GUI

•

681

716
914
942
687

191
26*0
21 1
20'4

39
38 '0
50

29*2

23*1

267
28 2
21 9

087
129

111
038

129
117
130
133

128

117
129
088

si
87

78

89

70
7S
77

82

M

7S

W.

w.

W. N. W.
W.

W. N. W.

W. N. W. 1

s. w. s

S. S. W. s

1". s. \v.
V. N. W:
. w.

. E. by S.

11 In
7 70

HI S3
5 92

In 90

9 17.
3 4.7

II IIS

111 50

2 70
H 61

a a str.

10.
9.
9.

S.

10.
10.

to.

6.

•

8.

I -i

000

677
SI I

18 1

1-7

26*2
29 ft

20 "9
12 O

081

»77

111
138

085
054

83
9rt

SO
77

78
71

X. E. by E.

S. !■:. by s.

!.B. S

w. \

.by*.
V. N. W.

1 12
l'2n

1 77
5 95

00
19 is

C.Str.

('. sir.

s.
in.

10.
6.

Clear.

80

KBMA

IKS FOR OCTOBER, 1858.

REMARKS FOR DECEMBER, 1858.

(/Highest, the 18th day,

■

hos.

Rain fell on 12 days, amounting to 5*629 inches ; it was raining

^Eighost, 1'"' 2nd day, 30 30 iincl

„ „,,,„ ) Lowest, '■ Sth "
Rarom '- 1,,r )Monthb>Mean, 29'9?2

29'211

"

. and was accompanied by thunder and

BMomotor. -„ (i|i ,, runelira.

Snnw fell on 10 days, amounting to 0'41 inches ;

it was snowing

nchest

lightning on 2 days,

Uflonthly Rui.

prevalent wind, N. E. by E. Least prevalent wind, S.

CMonth 56

First Snow of the season fell on the 4th day.

(-Highest, the 18th day,

70° 6.

Most \\ niiiy day, the 24th day ; mean miles per hour, 10*43.
1.1 -1 t -windy day, the 1st day; mean miles per hour, 3*00.

Amur;' Uurralis visible on jfnikhts.

(Highest, the tsl day.40°2.

Most prevalent wind, N. E. bv E. Least prevalent wind, E.

„,, , ... ) Lowest, the 20th (Lay,

Thermometer - j Monthly Mean, 46 I [

1 i : 2.

incrmometcr. ^Monthly Mean, 20 = 73.

Most windy day, the 17th day; mean miles per

hour, 23M9.
hour, O'll.

Ui"onth& Range, 46° i

t'nini-t Msiliie lu thr naked eye till the ISth dav.

Greatest inten-itv of the Sun's ravs, si -

4.

1 i:. 1 1. 1 1 1 ieal state of the atmosphere has indicated modc-

Greatest intensity of the Sim's rays, r.s °9.

Tho Elcetrical state of the atmosphere has indicated mode-

l,..\\i'>t (mint n| terrestrial radiation, 21

'4.

rato intensity.

Lowest point ol terrestrial radiation, 1 : s,

llaill fell on days, auiountint; to 3"090 inelies il was ralninK

Me i humidity, 7'J2.

Ozone v. ;is pn--i-nt in In rue quantity.

Amo

lit of E\

aporatio

a in inch

s, 1 G7'<

now bin

l-oplmui

.

ttrst seen ot

26th (lay.

31 hours

and 9 m

nutes.

THE

CANADIAN

MTUKALIST AID GEOLOGIST.

*

Vol. IV. APRIL, 1859. No. 2,

Article V. — On the cold term of January, 1859, from observa-
tions taken at St. Martin, Isle Jexus, C* E., Lat. 45° 32' JV.,
Long. 73° 36' W., 118 feet above the level of the Sea. By
Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL D., Professor of Meteorology
in the University of McGill College, Montreal.

(Presented to the Natural History Society of Montreal.)

The unprecedented cold term of January, 1859, has induced
me to place on record the principal atmospheric phenomena with
which it was accompanied. Its advent possessed some peculiar
features, not common to the normal or usual cold terms of
this climate. It is much to be regretted that we possess no
regular and extended system of meteorological observations, upon
which we can found conclusions as to the centre or turning point
of the storm. All that we know at the present is, that its course
was eastward, and that its duration and intensity were remarkable.

The weather at the beginning of January, was somewhat
mild, the mean temperature of the 1st day, was 30°9 F. The
thermometer fell on the morning of the 3rd to — 4°, and was
followed on the 4th day by slight snow. The wind was
from the N. E. by E. with a mean velocity of, from 9*18 to
4- 17 miles per hour. The barometer on the 3rd indicated 30*416
inches. The wind, at noon on the 5th, veered by the South to
S. by E., and the barometer fell to 29'621 inches. At 3 am.,
on the 6th it veered to the S. W. with a rising barometer. The

Canadian Nat. 1 Vol. IV. No. 2.

82

On the Cold Term of January, 18l)&.

mean of the temperature on the 5th was 34°6, and on the 6tb
27°3. At sunrise on the 7th dav, the wind veered to N. E.
by E. with a decrease in the barometric column ; the lowest
temperature recorded was 1*7° 1 and the highest 36°7 ; snow com-
mence to fall at 1 a.m., and ceased at 3'15 p.m., and indicated a
fall of 2*16 inches ; rain then set in and continued to fall till 10
p.m., and amounted to 0*021 inches; the wind veered at 10 p.m.
by the North to W. by S. ; the mean velocity at'ained during
the night was 36*22 miles per hour and very squally ; heavy
cumulo-strati clouds were passing and occasional slight precipita-
tion of snow took place in the shape of slight snow-showers dur-
ing the night, and until day break, and at 3 a.m. On Saturday
the 8th day the thermometer indicated 0* (zero), barometer 2 9*5 76
wind, W. by S., and varying from 13*22 to 18 # 33 miles per hour.
The thermometer continued foiling and attained a record of tem-
perature, I believe unequalled in Canada, both as to its intensity
and its duration. The following table indicates the temperature :

Saturday, 8th January,

1859, 3 a.m.

0°0

F.

tt

it

6 a.m.

— 4°1

(Relow

zero.)

u

11

7 a.m.

— 3°7

a

u

11

Noon.

— 2°9

ti

li

11

2 p.m.

— 1°9

u

u

li

9 p.m.

— 13°0

u

a

a

10 p.m.

— 13°6

a

it

u

Midnight

— 16°4

u

Sunday,

9 th

CC

6 a.m.

— 29°9

ti

u

«

7 a.m.

— 29°0

ii

a

u

9 a.m.

— 28°4

u

u

u

Noon.

— 23°8

u

u

u

2 p.m.

— 21°5

a

u

a

9 p.m.

— 33°9

a

u

n

10 p.m.

— 34°2

it

u

a

Midnight

— 36°0

it

Monday !

LOth

a

6 a.m.

— 43°6

n

u

u

7 a.m.

■— 43° 1

tt

«

n

9 a.m.

— 41°6

n

(c

u

Noon.

— 20°1

tc

tc

it

2 p.m.

— 14°3

ti-

((

tt

9 p.m.

— 28°8

lt

u

u

10 p.m.

— 29°2

n

n

n

Midnight

— 31°6

tt

Tuesday

11th

n

6 a.m.

— 37°1

ct

u

ti

7 a.m.

— 36°9

tt-

u

u

Noon.

— 24°8

u-

Tuesday, 11th January,

18

59, 2 p.m.

u

u

9 p.m.

tt

it

10 p.m.

tt

tt

Midnight

Wednesday 12th

a

6 a.m.

tt

«

2 p.m.

a

u

10 p.m.

Thursday 13th

a

6 a.m.

tt

a

7-30 a.m,

0?i the Cold Term of January, 1859. 83

- 19°9 "

- 21°0 "

- 21°6 "

- 18°1 "

- 19°4 "

- 10°4 "

- 5°0 "

- 3°1 "
0°0 (Zero.)

This table shows a period of 124 hours 30 minutes during
which the temperature was below zero — mercury froze in open
vessels; but the column of mercury in the tube of the thermo-
meter did not cease to contract at the lowest temperature — 43°6
(below zero) ; and Dr. Kane in his arctic voyages mentions the
fact that the mercurial column descended as low as — 44° ; and
Sir E. Belcher is said to have observed the mercurial thermometer
as low as — 46°. The mean temperature of Sunday the 9th, was
— 27°8; and of Monday the 10th— 29°0 ; and of Tuesday— 28°2
The barometer attained at 10 p.m. on Sunday the 9th the unusual
height of -30*614 inches, the mean velocity of the w r ind during the
day which was from the E. N. E. was 8*89 miles per hour.

On the 10th the wind was from the S.W. by S., mean velocity
0-08 miles per hour. The Aurora Berealis was visible on the
nights of Sunday, Monday and Tuesday, but not attended with
any great display.

The cold term ended by a fall of suow which commenced at
D-45 p.m. on the 12th, and ceased at 6-10 a.m. on the 13th day,
and amounted to 1*10 inches in depth.

This cold term was felt generally throughout Canada and the
Eastern States, and seems to have travelled from the west, east-
ward. At Rochester the extreme cold was feltsome hours earlier
than at this place, which is 4° 15' west of this observatorv, and
398 feet higher above the Sea-level, there — 10° below zero was
the minimum temperature. At Brooklyn near New-York, it was
— 9°, and is the lowest temperature recorded there for the last 70
years. x\t Boston it reached — 14°, at Toronto — 38°, at Quebec
— 40° 1, at Huntingdon about 60 miles south of thisplace the mercu-
rial thermometer indicated — 44°, and mercury is said to have
been frozen quite hard in 15 minutes when exposed in a saucer.

The Ozonometer indicated during the excessive cold but a mode-
rate degree, varying from 3 to 5 of Schonbein's scale.

The electrical state of the atmosphere, indicated positive sio-ns

84 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence^

and its mean intensity during the cold term was about 5° degrees
of intensity in term of Volt as' Electrometer, No. 1.

The indications of the Psychrometer at these low temperatures,
appears somewhat remarkable and perhaps defective, the Ice
coated Bulb, indicated at the lowest temperature a little more
than a degree higher then the dry bulb, and this continued so with a
decreasing temperature, hut as the temperature gradually rose the
ice coated bulb indicated as usual a lower temperature then the
dry bulb,— which would lead to the supposition that at thes;
extreme cold points, the ice formed rather a sheath or covering
over the bulb and prevented the uniform and gradual contractions
for decrease of temperature consequent on evaporation in the
mercurial column, corresponding to the dry bulb, and it was also
observed that the ice coated bulb was not so easily affected by
slight increase of temperature as generally takes place at more
moderate indications.

I have not seen the fact noticed, and would call the attention
of observers to this point, but these remarks are only applicable to
the extreme cold temperatures above noticed, and of which we
have had hitherto so few examples.

St. Martin, Isle Jesus, C. E.,
March 1, 1859.

ARTICLE VI. — Report on the Fisheries of the Gulf of Saint
Lawrence. By H. M. Perley, Esq., Her Majesty's Emi-
gration Officer at Saint John, N.B.

(Continued from our last.)

THE MACKEREL.

The common Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) abounds in the
Gulf of St Lawrence, and is one of the chief objects of pursuit
with the numerous fleets of American fishing vessels, which are
to be found yearly in every part of the Gulf. The Americans
begin fishing for Mackerel, in the Gulf, on the first of July, and
finish at the end of September ; but the resident fisherman might
begin this fishing earlier, and continue it until the very close of
the season.

Mr. MacGregor describes the Mackerel of the Gulf as being of
much finer flavour than those caught on the shores of Europe.

It has been generally supposed that the Mackerel was a fish of
passage, performing certain periodical migrations — making long

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

85

voyages from south to north at one season of the year, and the
reverse at another ; but the error of this opinion is now generally
admitted. It is known with certainty, that Mackerel remain near
the coast of England at all times, as they have been taken there
in every month of the year. Mr. Yarrell, whose work on British
Fishes is of the highest authority, is of opinion that the Mackerel is
not a migratory fish ; he says — u The law of nature which obliges
Mackerel and others to visit the shallow waters of the shores at a
particular season, appears to be one of those wise and bountiful
provisions of the Creator, by which not only is the species perpe-
tuated with the greatest certainty, but a large portion of the parent
animals are thus brought within the reach of man ; who, but for
the action of this law, would be deprived of many of those species
most valuable to him as food, For, the Mackerel, dispersed over
the immense surface of the deep, no effective fishery could be car-
ried on ; but approaching the shore as they do, from all directions,
and roving along the coast in immense shoals, millions are caught,
which yet form but a very small portion compared with the
myriads that escape."

Although Mackerel are found in vast shoals along the whole eas-
tern coast of New Brunswick, and within the Bay of Chaleur, yet
the quantity taken by resident fisherman is so very limited, as not
to furnish a sufficient supply for home consumption, and few indeed
for export.

The Ports of the Province within the Gulf, exported the under-
mentioned quantities of Mackerel, in barrels, during the last eight
years : —

Ports.

1841

1842

1843

1844

1845

1846

33
256
145

434

1847

■ •

99

47

146

1848

4
25

■ •

29

Total.

37
380
192

Totals,

•• 1

609

This is a most " beggarly account " of a fishery which ought
to be, in this Province, one of the most extensive and most lucra-
tive. The export of 29 barrels only in the year 1848 is perfectly-
surprising, when it is considered that the season was one in which
the Mackerel fishery was more than usually successful. In Au-

86 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

gust last, the waters of the Strait of Northumberland, from Shediae
to Prince Edward Island, were perfectly alive with Mackerel.
Off Point Escuminac, the American fisherman caught them with
such rapidity, and in such quantities, that they were unable to
clean and salt the fish as fast as they were caught ; and it was
reported on the coast, that they had sent on shore, and engaged
some of the settlers at high wages, to go off to the vessels, and
assist in these necessary operations.

Monsieur Leon Roblcheaux an intelligent native fisherman,
resident on Shippagan Island, from whom the writer obtained
valuable information as to the Fisheries, stated, that although
Mackerel were always plentiful during the season near Shippagan
and Miscou, yet the resident fishermen were too idle to take them.
He added, that they only caught a few as bait for Cod, or as mat-
ter of sport, when sailing to or from their stations for Cod fishing.

The American vessels which prosecute Mackerel fishing near
the shores of New Brunswick, are fitted out in Maine and Mas-
sachusetts ; they have two long voyages to make la going to, and
returning from, their fishing ground, yet they find it profitable.
If it be profitable to them, how much more so could it be made by
resident fishermen, who are spared the expense of costly vessels and
outfits, high wages, and long voyages.

The mode of fishing pursued by the American Mackerel Fishers
who frequent the Gulf, is that with the line, called " trailing."
When a "schull" is met with, the vessel, generally of 60 or 80
tons burthen, is put under easy sail, a smart breeze (thence called
a Mackerel breeze) being considered most favourable. It is stated
by Mr. Sabine, of Easport — who is good authority, — that he has
known a crew of ten men, when fishing in the Bay of Chaleur,
catch in one day, ninety packed or " dressed " barrels of Maekerel y
which could not contain less than 12,000 fish.

If no fish are in sight, the American Mackerel Fisher on reach-
ing some old resort, furls all the sails of his vessel, except the main
sail, brings his " craft " to the wind, and commences throwing over
bait, to attract the fish to the surface of the water. The bait is
usually small Mackerel, or salted Herrings, cut in pieces by a
machine, called a " bait-mill." This consists of an oblong wooden
box, standing on one end, containing a roller armed with knives,
which is turned by a crank on the outside ; it cuts up bait very
expediously. If the fisherman succeeds, the Mackerel then seem
willing to show how fast they can be caught ; and the fishing goes-

Fisheries of the Gulf of St, Lawrence. S7

on till the approach of night, or the sudden disappearance of the
remnant of the "scbull" puts an end to it. The fish are then
dressed, and thrown into casks of water to rid them of blood. To
ensure sound and sweet Mackerel, it is indispensable that the blood
and impurities should be thoroughly removed before salting ; that
the salt should be of the best quality, free from lime, or other inju-
rious substances ; and that the barrels should, in all cases, be tight
enough to retain the pickle.

In those Harbours of Nova Scotia which are within the Strait
of Canso, Mackerel of late years, have been taken in seines, capa-
ble of enclosing and securing 800 barrels ; and in these seines, 400
and even 600 barrels have been taken at a single sweep. The
"•drift-net" is also used ; but as it is believed that this mode of
fishing is not so well understood on the coast of Nova Scotia, as on
that of England, the manner of fishing near the latter, with the
u drift net,' 5 as described by Mr. Yarrel, is given in preference : —
" The most common mode of fishing for Mackerel, and the way
in which the greatest numbers are taken, is by drift-nets. The
drift-net is 20 feet deep, by 120 feet long ; well corked at the top,
but without lead at the bottom. They are made of small fine
twine, which is tanned of a reddish-brown colour, to preserve it
from the action of the salt water, and it is thereby rendered much
more durable. The size of the mesh is about <L\ inches, or rather
larger. Twelve, fifteen, and sometimes eighteen of these nets are
attached lengthways, by tying along a thick rope, called the drift-
rope, and the ends of each net, to each other. When arranged for
depositing in the sea, a large buoy attached to the end of the drift-
rope is thrown overboard, the vessel is put before the wind, and as
she sails along, the rope with the nets thus attached, is passed over
the stern into the water, till the whole of the nets are thus thrown
out. The nets thus deposited, hang suspended in the water per-
pendicularly, 20 feet deep from the drift-rope, and extending from
three quarters of a mile to a mile, or even a mile and a half, de-
pending on the number of nets belonging to the party, or company
engaged in fishing together. AVhen the whole of the nets are thus
handed out, the drift-rope is shifted from the stern to the bow of
the vessel, and she rides by it as at anchor. The benefit gained
by the boats hanging at the end of the drift-rope is, that the net is
kept strained in a straight line, which, without this pull upon it
would not he the case. The nets are " shot " in the evening, and
sometimes hauled once during the night, at others allowed to re-

88 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

main in the water all night. The fish roving in the dark through
the water, hang in the meshes of the net, which are large enough
to admit them beyond the gill-covers and pectoral fins, but not
large enough to allow the thickest part of the body to pass through.
In the morning early, preparations are made for hauling the nets.
A capstan on the deck is manned, about which two turns of the
drift-rope are taken ; one man standi forward to untie the upper
edge of each net from the drift-rope, which is called casting off the
lashings ; others hand the net in with the fish caught, to which one
side of the vessel is devoted; the other side is occupied with the
drift-rope, which is wound in by the men at the capstan."

The following is a statement of the number of barrels of Mac-
kerel inspected in Massachusetts in each year, from 1831 to 1848 7
inclusive : —

1831, 383,559 1840 f 50 ? 992

1832, 212,452 1841, 55,53*

1833, 212,946 1842, 15,543

1834, 252,884 1843, 64,451

1835, 194,450 1844, 86,180

1836, 176,931 1845, 202,303

1831, 138,157 1846, 114,064

1838, 108,538 1841, 232,581

1839, . .. 73,018 1848, 300,130

It does not appear what proportions of these large quantities of
Mackerel were caught in British waters; but it must have been a
very considerable share, if an opinion may be formed from the
numerous fishing vessels of Massachusetts seen on the coast of
Nova Scotia, and within the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.

From all that has been stated, it must be considered settled, that
the Mackerel Fishery, as a branch of business, cannot be said to
exist in New Brunswick, although the eastern shores of the Pro-
vince, and the whole Bay of Chaleur, offer the greatest facilities,
and the most abundant supply of fish.

It is highly desirable that something should be done to encourage
and promote this fishery, which evidently offers such ample re-
ward to the energy, enterprise, and industry of the people.

THE SALMON.

Of those Rivers of New Brunswick which flow into the Gulf of
Saint Lawrence, the two largest, the Miramichi and the Resti-
gouche, furnish the greatest supply of this well known and delicious
fish ; but all the smaller Rivers also furnish Salmon in greater or

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

89

less numbers. There are also various Bays, Beaches, Islands, and
points' of land along the coast, where Salmon are intercepted by
nets, while seeking the Rivers in which they were spawned, and
to which Salmon always return.

The Salmon of the Gulf are noted for their fine flavour ; they
are precisely similar to the Salmo salar of Europe.

The quantities of Salmon in the River Resticouche and Mira-
michi, at the first settlement of the country, were perfectly prodi-
gious; although many are yet taken annually, the supply diminishes
from year to year. And this is not surprising when it is considered
that many of the Streams formerly frequented by Salmon, are now
completely shut against them, by Mill Dams without " Fishways,"
or those openings which the British Fishery Reports designate as
"Migration Passes ;" that in the branches of the large Rivers, as
also in the smaller Rivers, nets are too often placed completely
across the Stream, from bank to bank, which take every fish that
attempts to pass — that "close time" in many of the Rivers is
scarcely, if at all, regarded — and that, besides the improper use of
nets at all seasons, fish of all sizes are destroyed by hundreds, in
the very act of spawning, by torch light and spears, at a time when
they are quite unfit for human food.

The quantities of pickled Salmon in barrels, exported from the
northern Ports of New Brunswick, during the last eight years, are
as follows : —

Ports.

1841

138

32

11

1614

20

1815

1842

273
161

20
2295

• •

2749

1843

552

250

13

1093

107

2015

1844

591

126

5

1616
137

2475

1845

565
134

1836

77

2612

1846

766
216

146

78

1206

1847

643
190

1531
61

2425

1848

381

156

3

1571

2111

Totals.

Dalhousie,

Bathurst

Caraquet,

Miramichi,

Richibucto,

3909

1265

52

11,702

480

Totals,

17,408

Since the establishment of regular Steamers from the Port of
St. John to Boston, large quantities of Fresh Salmon, — packed in
ice, have been exported, and the commodity has greatly increased
in value. If facilities of communication were created by Railway,
the fresh Salmon of the Gulf could also be sent abroad in ice, and
their value when first caught would be three or four times as great
as at present.

The exceeding value of the Salmon Fisheries of Ireland, and

90 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Scotland, cause great attention to be paid by the British Fishery
Boards, to the enforcement of most stringent regulations for their
preservation and increase. With reference to the preservation of
Salmon, the Inspectors of the Irish Fisheries reported to the
Board in 1846, as follows : — " In illustration of the benefits of a
steady perseverance in a proper system, we may allude to the
Foyle, where the produce has been raised from an average of 43
tons previous to 1823, to a steady produce of nearly 200 tons
including the Stake Weirs, in the Estuary, and very nearly to 300
tons, as we believe, in the year 1842." The Inspectors also men-
tion the ca?e of the small River of Newport, County Mayo, which
was formerly exempt from '• close season." In three years, after
the Parliamentary Regulations were introduced and enforced, the
produce of this River was raised from half a ton, or at the utmost,
a ton every season, to eight tons of Salmon, and three tons of white
Trout, for the season ending the third year.

The preservation and maintenance of the Salmon Fisheries of
New Brunswick generally, is a subject w T ell worthy of earnest
attention. To prevent the destruction of the fish during the
spawning season, and by improper modes of fishing, as also to pro-
vide for the passage of the fish up those Streams which they have
formerly frequented, but from which they are now excluded by
Mill Dams, some further enactments are absolutely necessary, and
more efficient means are required for enforcing the provisions of the
law. The most valuable River Fishery of the Province is in a
fair way of being rendered valueless, or wholly destroyed ; and as
the Rivers are the natural nurseries of the Salmon, the fishery on
the coast will, of course, be destroyed also.

Large quantities of Salmon are caught every season on the La-
brador coast, in stake-nets placed at the mouths of Rivers, which
empty into Bays and Harbours ; tliese are split and salted in large
tubs, and afterwards repacked in tierces of two hundred pounds
each. A number of vessels, from Newfoundland and Canada, are
engaged annually in this Fishery; but the American fishing ves-
sels pursue it with great vigour and assiduity, and it is reported
that of late years they have found it very profitable.

The quantities of pickled Salmon exported from Newfoundland
in 1847, was 4,917 tierces, one half of which was the produce of
the Salmon fishery on the coast of Labrador.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 91

THE WHALE.

The extent to which the Whale Fishery is carried on, within the
Gulf of Saint Lawrence, ]^y vessels from Newfoundland, is very
little known, nor is its value appreciated. The Jersey houses who
have fishing establishments in Gaspe, also fit out vessels for this
Fisherv, which cruise about Anticosti, and the northern shore of
the Saint Lawrence. Mr. MacGregor, in an official Report to the
Board of Trade, thus describes this Fishery : — " The Whales
caught within the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, are those called '• hump-
backs," which yield on an average about three tons of oil ; some
have been taken seventy feet long; which produced eight tons.
The mode of taking them is somewhat different from that followed
by the Greenland Fishers ; and the Gaspe fisherman first acquired
an acquaintance with it from the people of Nantucket. An active
man, accustomed to boats and schooners, may become fully ac-
quainted with everything connected with this Fisheiy in one
season. The vessels adapted for this purpose, are schooners of
seventy or eighty tons burthen, manned with a crew of eight men,
including the master. Each schooner requires two boats, about
twenty feet long, built narrow and sharp, and with pink sterns ;
and 220 fathoms of line are necessary to each boat, with spare
harpoons and lances. The men row towards the Whale, and when
they are very near, use paddles, which make less noise than oars.
Whales are sometimes taken in fifteen minutes after they are struck
with the harpoon. The Gaspe fishermen never go out in quest of
them, until some of the smaller one9, wdiich enter the Bay about
the beginning of June, appear ; these swim too fast to be easily bar*
pooned, and are not besides, worth the trouble. The large Whale9
are taken off the entrance of the Gasj>e Bay,on each side of the Island
of Anticosti ; and up the River Saint Lawrence as far as Bic."

Mr. Bouchette in his work on lower Canada, represents the
Whale Fishery of the Gulf as meriting the attention ot the Legis
lature, and needing encouragement ; by which, he says, the
number of vessels employed would be considerably increased, and
this important branch of business would be so effectually carried
on by the hardy inhabitants of Gaspe, as to compete, in some de-
gree, if not rival, that of the Americans, who were, at the time
Mr. Bouchette wrote, almost in exclusive enjoyment of it, and
carried on their enterprising fisheries in the very mouths of the
Bays and Harbours of Lower Canada.

Sir Richard Bonnycastle, in his work, entitled " Newfoundland

92 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

in 1842," says, "the Coast and Gulf Whale Fishery is now being
of much value to Newfoundland." Sir Richard states, that the
vessels employed are large schooners, with crews often men each ;
that the fishery is pursued during the wlfole of the summer months
along the Coast of Labrador, and in, and through, the Straits of
Belleisle ; and that Whales of all sizes are taken, from the smallest
" finner," up to the largest Mysticetus, or great common Oil Whale
of the Northern Ocean, which occasionally visits these regions.

It is believed that hitherto, no attempt has been made by the
people of New Brunswick, to enter into this Whale Fishery ; and
it would be a very proper subject for inquiry, whether it might not
be profitably conducted by New Brunswick vessels, and the active
and enterprising Fishermen of the Bay of Chaleur, who are equally
well placed for carrying it on, as their hardy comrades on the
Gaspe side of the Bay.

THE SEAL.

As the capture of the Seal is always designated " Seal
Fishery," and as it is blended with the other pursuits of the Fisher-
man, it may be proper to mention it here.

Five kinds of Seals are said to be found in the Northern Ocean ;
they bring forth their youug on the ice early in the Spring, and they
float down upon it from the Polar Seas to Labrador, the Coast of
Newfoundland, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The two largest
kinds are known as the Harp Seal, (Phoca groenlandica,) and the
Hooded Seal, (Phoca leonina). The other three varieties are
known as the " Square Flipper," the " Blue Seal," and the " Jar
Seal."

Large herds of these Seals are fouud together upon the fields of
floating ice, which, when so occupied, are called " Seal Meadows."
The Seal Hunters endeavour to surprise them while sleeping on
the ice, and when this occurs they dispatch the young with
bludgeons ; the old ones which will frequently turn and make
resistance, they are obliged to shoot.

Sealing is carried on very extensively from Newfoundland in
schooners of about eighty tons burthen, with crews of thirty men.
It is attended with fearful dangers ; yet the hardy Seal Hunter of
Newfoundland, eagerly courts the perilous adventure.

The following Return of the number of Seal Skins exported from
Newfoundland from 1831 to 1848 inclusive, will furnish some idea
of the value of the Seal Fishery to that Colony: —

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 93

1838 375,361 1844 685,530

1839 437,501 1845 -352,202

1840 631,385 1846

1841 417,115 1847 436,831

1842 344,683 1848 521,004

1843 651,370

The outfit for the " Seal Fishery " from the various Harbours o^
Newfoundland in the year 1847, was as follows: —

Vessels. Tons. Men.

321 29,800 9,751

Sealing among the ice, is also prosecuted, in early spring, at the
Magdalen Islands; and also on the Labrador Coast, by the people
who remain there during the winter in charge of the Fishing
Stations, and the conduct of the Fur Tra le. Seals are also caught
at Labrador on the plan first adopted, by strong nets set across
such narrow channels as they are in the habit of passing through.

Within a few years, the ' ; Seal Fishery " has been commenced
at Cape Breton, encouraged by a small Provincial bounty ; it has
been conducted in vessels not over 40 tons burthen, with crews of
eight men. In 1843, twenty -two vessels went to the ice from
Cheticamp and Margaree, and returned with near 10,000 Seals,
which are stated to have amply requited those engaged in the
adventure, as their outfit was on a very limited scale. In 1842,
an enterprising Merchant of Sydney fitted out a Sealing vessel, on
the Newfoundland scale, which in the short space of three weeks
cleared the round sum of £14,000 ; and this extraordinary success
encouraged others to enter into the business.

As yet, Sealing is altogether unknown to the inhabitants of New
Brunswick; although it is believed that the adventure might be
made successfully, by vessels departing from the north eastern
extremity of the Province.

The Harbour Seal (Phoca vitulina) is frequently seen along the
coasts of New Brunswick during the summer season, and is believed
not to be migratory. They are closely watched by the Micmao
Indians, who often succeed in shooting them. The fur of these
Seals is sometimes very handsome ; and the animal is always a rich
piize to the poor Micmac.

SHELL FISn.

Under this head may be enumerated Lobsters, Oysters, Clams,
Mussels, Whelks, Razor-fish, Crabs, and Shrimps, all of which are
found in the Gulf, in the greatest abundance, and of excellent

94 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

quality. Mr. MacGregor states, that they are all equally delicious
with those taken on English, Irish, Scotch, or Norweigian Shores.

Lobsters are found everywhere on the coast, and in the Bay of
Chaleur, in such extraordinary numbers, that they are used by
thousands to manure the land. At Shippagan and Caraquette,
carts are sometimes driven down to the beaches at low water, and
readily filled with Lobsters left in the shallow pools by the recession
of the tide. Every potato field near the places mentioned, is strewn
with Lobster shells, each potato hill being furnished w r ith two, and
perhaps three, Lobsters.

Within a few years, one establishment has been setup on Portage
Island, at the mouth of the Miramichi River, and another at the
mouth of the Kouchibouguac River, for putting up Lobsters, in tin
cases, hermetically sealed for exportation. In 1845, no less than
13 000 cases of Lobsters and Salmon were thus put up at Portage
Island. In 1847, nearly 10,000 cases of Lobsters only, each case
containing the choicest parts of two or three Lobsters, and one and
a half tons of fresh Salmon, in 2R> and 4- lb cases, were put up at
Kouchibouguac. The preservation of Lobsters, in this manner,
need only be restricted by the demand, for the supply is almost

unlimited.

The price paid for Lobsters at the establishment on Portage Island
when the writer visited it, was two shillings and six pence currency
(two shillings sterling) per hundred. They were all taken in small
hoop-nets, chiefly by the Acadian French of the Neguac Villages,
who at the price stated, could with reasonable diligence, earn one
pound each in the twenty four hours; but as they are somewhat
idle and easily contented, they would rarely exert themselves to
earn more than ten shillings per day, which they could generally
obtain by eight or ten hours attention to their hoop-nets.

Oysters are found all along the New Brunswick Coast, -from
Baie Verte to Caraquette, but not within the Bay of Chaleur.
Those best known in this Province for their fine quality, are the
Oysters of Shediac ; but the extensive beds which formerly existed
there have been almost wholly destroyed by improper modes of
fishing, an utter disregard of the spawning season, and the wanton
destruction of the fish by throwing down shells upon the beds. It
is a singular fact, that ice will not form over an Oyster bed, unless
the cold is verv intense indeed ; and when the Bays are frozen over
in the winter, the Oyster beds are easily discovered by the water
above them remaining unfrozen, or as the French residents say,

Fisheries ofthi Gulf of St. Lawrence. 95

degele. The Oysters are then lifted upon the strong ice with
rakes ; the process of freezing expands the fish, and forces open
the shells ; the Oyster is removed, and the shells are allowed to fall
back into the water, where they tend to destroy the fishery.

Some Oysters of very large size and good quality are found at
Tabusintac, but those of the finest description are found on extensive
beds in Shippagan Harbour, Saint Simon's Inlet, and Caraquette
Bay, from which localities they are exported every season to Que-
bec. The number of bushels exported from the port of Caraquette
during the last eight years, is as follows : —

1841, 5,000 1845, 2,010

1842, 7,000 1846, 1,915

1843, 5,290 1847, 425

1844, 6,000 1848, 5,432

Oysters are abundant at Cocagne, Buctouche, Richibucto
Burnt Church, and other places on the coast; but in general, they
are too far within the mouths of the freshwater streams, and their
quality is greatly inferior to those affected by sea water only.

From the manner in which the Oyster Fishery of the Gulf Shore
is now being conducted, all the Oysters of good quality will, in a
few years, be quite destroyed. The preservation of this fishery is
of considerable importance, and it might be affected as well by
judicious regulations and restrictions, as by encouraging the forma-
tion of artificial beds, or "Layings," in favourable situations.
Several persons on the coast intimated to the writer, their desire
to form new and extensive beds in the sea water, by removing
oysters from the mixed water of the estuaries, where they are now
almost worthless, if they could obtain an exclusive right to such
beds when formed, and the necessary enacments to prevent their
being plundered.

There are two varieties of the Clam, distinguished as the " hard-
shell," and the "soft-shell." They are eaten largely in Spring,
when they are in the best condition ; and great quantities are used
as bait for Cod. Clams are much prized by persons residing at a
distance from the sea coast, and they are frequently sent into the
interior, where they meet a ready sale, as they can be sold at a
very low price.

The Razor fish derives its name from the shells being shaped
very like the handle of a razor ; the fish is well flavoured in the
proper season, and not unlike the Clam, though somewhat tougher.

96 Fisheries of the Gulf of St, Lawrence,

Crabs of all sizes, are to be bad in abundance, but they are nc.
often caught; neither are the Shrimps, which are to be seen in
-endless quantities. At times, the waters of the Straits of Northum-
berland appear as if thickened with masses of Shrimps moving
about, their course being plainly indicated by the fish of all descrip-
tions, which follow in their wake, and feed upon them gree lily.

RIVER FISHERIES.

The principal Fsheries in tho-e Rivers of New Brunswick
which flow into the Gulf, in addition to the Salmon Fishery already
mentioned are those for Gaspereaux, Shad, Basse and Trout.
There are also Smelts, Eels, Flounders, and a great variety of
small fish.

The Gaspereaux has been noticed under the head of Herring.
The fish is found in almost every River, and the Gasperaux fish-
ery has been considered of so much importance, that various Acts
of Assembly have, from time to time, been passed for its regulation
and protection. But these laws have either been neglected, or not
properly enforced, and this fishery is rapidly declining. Very
slight obstructions suffice to prevent the Gaspereaux from ascend-
ing streams to their old haunts ; the dams for mills, or for driving
timber, have shut them out in numerous instances from their best
spawning grounds, and the greatest injury has in this way been
inflicted on the fishery.

The Shad (Alosa vulgaris of Cuvier) of the Gulf, are not taken
in such numbers, nor are they of so fine quality, as those caught
in the Bay of Fundy ; comparatively, they are dry and flavourless,
owing as is said, to the sandy character of the shores of the Gulf,
which are supposed to furnish less of the peculiar food of the Shad
than the muddy Rivers of the Bay of Fundy, where they are taken
in such high perfection. This fishery has also been mentioned in
several Acts of Assembly ; but the habits, and most usual resorts,
of the Shad of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, have not been care-
fully observed. It is not improbable, therefore, that a better
knowledge of the habits of the fish might lead to the fishery
becoming more valuable.

The Basse, or Marine Perch, (Perca labrax of Cuvier) swim in
shoals along the coast, and frequently ascend the Rivers to a con-
siderable distance from the sea, to deposit their spawn. They are
taken of all sizes up to 20ft> weight, or even more; but those of
3 ft) to 5 lb are considered the best flavoured. They are some-

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 97

times salted, but generally they are eaten while fresh. This
fishery has also been attempted to be regulated and preserved by
law, but evidently with very little success, as it is fast decreasing.
"Sad havoc is made among the Basse, in the winter season, when
they lie in numerous shoals half torpid, in shallow water. A large
hole is cut in the ice above them, and they are lifted out with dip'
nets ; in this manner the Basse Fisheries, in some of the smaller
Rivers, have been wholly destroyed

There are two species of Trout found in the greatest abundance
in every river, -stream, and break, which finds its way from the
interior of New Brunswick to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Of
these, the Salmon Trout (Salmo truita) is of the largest size, and
most valuable. The common Trout (Salmo fontinalls) is taken
in every possible variety., every where.

The Sea Trout, (Salmo truita marina) seldom ascend the
Rivers far above the tideway; when they first enter the estuaries
early in the season, they are in the finest condition, and scarcely,
if at all, inferior to Salmon. They are frequently taken of the
weight of 7ft>, though the most usual weight is from 2ft> to oib-
They are very abundant in June, in the Bays and Harbours o
Prince Edward Island. At the Magdalen Islands they are taken
in nets, and being pickled in small casks, are exported to the West
Indies; if carefully cleaned, cured, and packed, they there bring
a higher price than Salmon.

In the tide-way of the Rivers flowing into the Gulf, these fine
fish might be taken in sufficient quantities to form an article of
traffic. They afford great sport to the fly-fisher, especially when
they first enter the mixed water of the tide-way in the smaller
Rivers.

The common Trout [Salmo fontinalis) are also eagerly sought
after by the disciples of Izaak Walton ; and although destroyed in
the most wanton and reckless manner by unthinking persons, they
are still abundant. The destruction of these beautiful fish takes
place by wholesale, upon many Rivers in the northern part of the
Province, and one of the modes practised is called " rolling for
trout." When the streams are at their lowest stage in the sum-
mer season, a dam of logs, stones, and brush, is roughly built at
the lower end of some pool, in which the fish have congregated.
This " rolling-dam " being constructed, the stream for some dis-
tance above the pool, is beaten with poles, and the fish are driven
down to the deepest water, out of which they are swept with a net.
Canadian Nat. 2 Vol. IV. No. 2.

98 Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Lawi'ence.

The writer was informed, that in this way 3,600 Trout had bee??
taken out of one pool, at a single sweep of the net. In August
1848, 13,000 large Trout were thus taken out of one pool on the'
Scadouc River, while the writer was at Shediac. This practice
is greatly to be deprecated, as by destroying fish of all sizes it
completely breaks up the Trout fishery on those Rivers where it
takes place.

The Smelt (Osmervs eperlanus of Cuvier, and Osmerus viri-
descens of Agassiz,) is found in excessive abundance in all the
Rivers and Streams flowing into the Gulf. In the latter part of
winter, when in the best condition, they are taken through holes in
the ice, and at that season are a very great delicacy ; they are then
frequently called "frost-fish." Immediately after the ice dis-
appears, they rush in almost solid columns up the brooks and
rivulets to s-pawn, and are then taken by cart-loads. This Fishery,,
under proper management, might be made one of considerable
profit, as the Smelt is really delicious, and always highly esteemed.
It is believed that there are two distinct species of this fish, and
that the smaller of the two, is more highly scented, as well as more
highly flavoured, than the other.

Eels of large size and of fine quality, are taken every where
within the Gulf : besides those consumed fresh, they are pickled in
considerable quantities, as well for home consumption, as for ex-
portation. Mr. Yarrell, in describing the Eel, says : — "They are
in reality a valuable description of Fish ; they are very numerous,
very prolific, and are found in almost every part of the world.
They are in great esteem for the table, and the consumption in our
large Cities is very considerable."

In the calm and dark nights during August and September, the
largest Eels are taken in great numbers, by the Micmacs and
Acadian French, in the estuaries and lagoons, by torch light, with
the Indian Spear. This mode of taking Eel requires great quick-
ness and dexterity, and a sharp eye. It is pursued with much
spirit, as besides the value of the Eel, the mode of fishing is very
exciting. In winter Eels bury themselves in the muddy parts of
Rivers, and their haunts r which are generally well known, are
called " Eel Grounds." The mud is thoroughly probed with a five
pronged iron spear, affixed to a long handle, and used through a
hole in the ice. When the Eels are all taken out of that part
within reach of the spear, a fresh hole is cut r and the fishing goes
on again upon new ground.

Fisheries of the Gulf of St. Law?'ence. 99

If a market should be found for this description of Fish, they
could be furnished to an unlimited extent.

The common Flounder (Platessa plana of Mitchel,) is found in
such abundance in the Gulf, that it is used largely for manuring
land. The writer has seen Potatoes being planted in hills, when
the only dressing consisted of Fresh Flounders, which were used
with a lavish hand. They are seldom taken by the inhabitants of
the Gulf Shore, who can readily obtain so many other descriptions
of Fish of superior quality. The Flounder is long lived out of the
water, and bears land carriage better than most Fish ; there is no
reason therefore, why Flounders should not become a valuable
commodity.

That the varied, extensive, and most abundant Fisheries of the"
Gulf of Saint Lawrence, would be greatly influenced by the con-
struction of a Railway along the Eastern Coast of New Brunswick,
there cannot be a reasonable doubt ; but in all probability the pro-
posed Railway from Shediac to the Harbour of Saint John, would
affect those Fisheries in an equal, if not a greater degree.

The hardy and enterprising Fisherman (m the Bay of Fundy,
dread the long and dangerous voyage around the whole Peninsula
of Nova Scotia, to the fishing grounds of the Gulf, a voyage which
frequently lasts three weeks, and is deemed by Underwriters equally
hazardous with a voyage to Europe ; but it is not alone the dangers
of the voyage which deters them from the prosecution of these
Fisheries ; it is the great loss of time they occasion, and the expense
they create, as these render the adventure, too often, far from
profitable.

A Railway from Shediac to the Port of Saint John, which is
open at all seasons of the year, would enable the various products
of the Fisheries to reach a Port of shipment in four hours, and the
necessity for the long voyage around Nova Scotia would be wholly
obviated. The fishing vessels could winter at any of the Ports on
the Gulf Shore which they found most convenient ; their stores
and outfit could be sent up by Railway ; and they would, in such
case, enjoy the advantage of being on the fishing grounds at the
earliest moment in the spring, and the Fisherman could protract
his labours until the winter had again fairly set in.

The fresh Salmon, packed in ice, which were sent last season,
from Saint John to Boston by the steamers, owing to the facilities
of transport in the United States, in three days after they left
Saint John, appeared at table, in prime condition, at Albany, Bui-

1 00 Catalogue of Canadian Plants,

falo, Niagara Falls, New York, and Philadelphia. If the Salmon
of the northern Rivers could be transported by railway to Saint
John, they would find a ready market in the numerous towns
and villages of the United States, and the Salmon Fishery alone,
would prove a perfect mine of wealth to the northern part of the
Province.

The immense products which might be obtained bv a vigorous
prosecution of the Fisheries for Herring, Cod, and Mackerel, would
not only furnish a fruitful source of profit to a railway, but they
would afford such an amount of remunerative employment to all
the productive classes, as almost to defy calculation. They would
enable the Province to open up and prosecute, a successful trade
with several Foreign countries, with which at present the mer-
chants of New Brunswick have no connection whatever. The
farmer also, would be greatly benefitted by the extension of the
Fisheries in connection with the railway, because he would not only
find a more ready market for his surplus produce, but he would be
furnished with wholesome and nutritious food, at all seasons of the
year, on the most reasonable terms.

Aided by railways, the Fisheries of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence
now of so I'ttle importance, and such limited value, would take
rank as one of the highest privileges of New Brunswick — its unfail-
ing; source of wealth forever hereafter. And while the efforts of
the people were successfully directed towards securing these boun-
ties of Providence, lavished with such unsparing hand, they would
rejoice in the goodness of an all wise Creator, and offer up humble
but earnest thanks to Almighty God for his exceeding goodness
and mercy towards his erring and sinful creatures.

Article VII. — Catalogue of Canadian Plants 1 in the Holmes'
Herbarium, in the Cabinet of the University of McGill
College. Prepared by the late Prof. James Barnston,
M.D.

[Introductory Note. — The plants comprising this herbarium
were collected and determined by Prof. A. F. Holmes, M. D., in
the year 1820 and following years, and were presented by him
to the University in 1856. They are admirably prepared and in

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. 101

an excellent state of preservation, and represent in a very com-
plete manner the Flora of the Island of Montreal and its vicinity.
Under the care of the late Prof. Barnston, they were arranged
according to the classification of Gray ; the nomenclature was
modernized, and a catalogue partly prepared, to which it was
his intention to have added the results of his own researches, and
to have published the whole as a synopsis of the Flora of Montreal.
In its present form, the catalogue fails far short of this design ;
but it is hoped that its publication may nevertheless be regarded
as a useful contribution to Canadian Botany. The Island of
Montreal is geographically a very important station. Situated
between the parallels of 45° and 46° N. lat., at the confluence of
the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa, and presenting a great variety
of soil and elevation, it affords an epitome of the botanical condi-
tions of the middle region of Canada. The present collection
also derives additional interest from the circumstance, that it
affords many localities of species which have become locally
extinct, owing to the progress of cultivation and the extension of
the city. Lastly, the herbarium of the Colleg* being an anged
in such a manner as to be easily accessible, it is hoped that the
present catalogue may make it more useful to students of botany,
and that it may form a groundwork for a complete Flora of the
vicinity of Montreal.

The names in the catalogue are those attached to the specimens
by Dr. Holmes. The more modern names, where any change
has occurred, are added with the initials J. B. The Grasses
and Carices of the collection, and a separate collection of Forest
Trees and Shrubs, still remain unarranged r and will, if possible,
be published in a supplementary list. — j. w. d.]

Ranunculacea.

Atragene Americana. June 4, 1822. Mountain.

Clematis Virginica. August 20, 1821. Below ITallowell's House.

Anemone Pennsylvanica. June 16, 1821. Papineau Woods, &c.

" Virginiana. July 8, 1821. Mountain.
Thalictrum dioicum. Meadow Rue.

11 cornuti.

Hepatica triloba. May 4, 1821. Mountain.
Ranunculus filiformis. August 13, 1821. St. Helen's Island.

(R. flammula, var. reptans, Gray, J. B.)
Ranunculus fluviatilis. June 27, '21. River St. Pierre. (R. Purshii,

Torr. and Gray, J. B.)
Ranunculus delphinifolius. June 29, 1821. Lacbine Woods.

(R. Purshii, Torr. and Gray, J. B.)
Ranunculus hirsutus. July 23, 1821. Meadows near Gregory's.

(R. Pennsylvanicus, Linn., Gray, J. B.)

102 Catalogue of Canadian Plants.

Ranunculus acris (crowfoot, buttercup). June 18, 1821. Common.
M repens. August 10, 1821. Common.
" abortivus. June 21. Mountain.

" lanuginosus. June 11, 1821. Mountain. (R. recur-
vatus, J. B.)
Coptis trifolia (gold-thread). May 20, 1821. Mountain.
Caltha palustris (marsh marigold). May 23, 1821. Meadows, &c.
Aquilegia Canadensis (columbine). May 20, 1821. Mountain.
Actaea alba (bane-berry). May 31, 1821. Mountain.
" rubra. May 15, 1821. Papineau Road.
Menispermacece.

Menispernum Canadense (moonseed). July 19, 1821. St. Martin.
Berberidacece.

Podophyllum peltatum (may-apple). 1821. In a garden, at Nich-
olson's, on the mountain.
Cabombacece.

Hydropeltis purpurea (water shield). Sept. 3, 1821. River, near
Point St. Charles. (Brasenia peltata, Pursh, J. B.)
NymphaacecB.

Nymphaea odorata (pond-lily). July 23, 1821. Mouth of St. Pierre.
Nuphar advena (yellow pond-lily). July 23, 1821. River St.
Pierre, &c.
Sarraceniacece.

Sarracenia purpurea (pitcher-plant, Indian cup). June, 1820.
Savanne, St. Michel.
Papaveracece.

Chelidonium majus (celandine). Roadside. 1821.
Sanguinaria Canadensis (blood-root). May 15, 1821. Mountain,
Papineau Woods.
Fumariacece.

Corydalis glauca. June 16, 1821. Papineau Road.

" Canadensis (squirrel corn). May 7, 1822. Mountain.
(Dicentra Canadensis, DC. Gray. J. B.)
Corydalis cucullaria (Dutchman's breeches). May *1, 1822. Moun-
tain. (Dicentra cucullaria, DC. Gray. J. B.)
CrurifercB.

Nasturtium amphibium. Br. and DC. July 23, 1821. Gregory's

Creek.
Sisymbrium (Nasturtium) palustre. July 21, 1821. In a yard.
Dentaria diphylla (pepper-root). May 31, 1821. Mountain.
Cardamine Pennsylvanica (bitter cress). June 7, 1822. Nuns'

Island, Lachine Wood. (C. hirsuta. J.B.)
Turritis (Arabis) laevigata. June 22, 1821. Mountain.
Erysimum Barbarea (winter cress). June 6, 1821. Nichol's Gully.

(Barbarea vulgaris, Torr.)
Sinapis alba (white mustard). 1821. Common.

" nigra (black mustard). 1821. Common.
Thlaspe" bursa-pastoris (shepherd's purse). July 11, 1821. Com-
mon. (Caprella, Vent.)
Thlaspe' arvense. July 21. Common.

" campestre (Lepidium campestre). July 3, 1822. In a
field, Three Rivers.
Lepidium Virginicum (wild pepper grass). Aug. 2, 1821. Road-
side, Citadel Hill.
Capparidacece .

Cleome dodecandra. Aug. 13, 1821. Shore St. Helen's. (Pola-
nisia graveolens, Raf., Gray, J. B.)

Violacece.

Viola Canadensis (Canada violet). May 31, 1821. Mountain, &c.

Catalogue oj Canadian Plants. 103

¥iola pubescens (downy yellow violet). May 23, 1821. Papineau
Woods.
11 blanda (sweet white violet). May 25, 1822. Savanne, &c.
" Selkirkii (great-spurred violet). Goldie.
" striata (pale violet). May 13, 1821. Swamp, St. Denis-st.
*' cucullata (common blue violet). Mountain.
u sagittata (arrow-leaved violet). May 30, 1825. Nuns'
Island, Berthier, &c.
Parnassiacece.

Parnassia Caroliniana. 1820.
Hypericacece.

Hypericum ascyroides (great St John's-wort). July 29, 1821.

Swamp, St Denis Street. (EL pyramidatum, Torr., J. B.)

41 Canadense. July 29, 1821. Meadows between Suburbs.

u perforatum (common St. John's-wort). July 28, 1821.

Swamp, St. Denis Street.
u corymbosum. July 27, 1821. Swamp, St. Denis Street,

et aliis, August 8, Gregory's Woods.
Hypericum Virginicum. Aug. 11, 1821. Woods beyond Gregory's.
11 sphaerocarpon. July 9, 1821. Shore near River St.

Pierre. (H. hypericum, J. B.)
11 parviiorum. 1821. Papineau Woods. (H. mutilum,

J. B.)
€!aryophyllace<e.

Alsine media (ehickweed). 1821. Common. (Stellaria media,

Smith [see Torrey], J. B.)
Stellaria graminea (stitch-wort). June 29, 1821. Lacbine Woods.

(S. longifolia, J. B.)
Arenaria lateriflora. June 16, 1821. Papineau Road. (Mcehrin-

gia laterifolia, Gray, J. B.)
Cerastium diehotomum. June 25, 1821. Mountain. (C. oblongi-
folium, Torrey, J. B.)
" vulgatum (mouse-eared ehickweed). June 16, 1821.

Common.
" viscosum. June 4, 1822. Mountain side.
Mollugo verticillata (carpet weed). Sept. 27. (An immigrant
from further south, Gray.)
Portulacacea.

Portulacca oleracea (purslane). August 14, 1821. Common.
Claytonia Virginica (spring beauty). May 7, 1822. Mountain,
(Is not this C. Caroliniana, Michaux. J. B.)
Malvacece.

Malva rotundifolia (Mallow). August 1, 1821. Common.
Oxalidacece.

Oxalis Dillenii (wood-sorrel, sheep-sorrel). June 29, 1821. Very
common. (0. stricta, J. B.)
" acetosella (wood-sorrel). July 10, 1822. Woods near
Montreal, Portages of Black River, Three Rivers.
Geraniacea.

Geranium Carolinianum (Cranesbill),

u Robertianum (herb Robert) Isle aux Hurons.

BalsaminacecB.

Impatiens noli-me-tangere (balsamine). Aug. 9, 1821. Common
in most brooks, (I. fulva, I. biflora, Pursh, J. B.)
il biflora. Aug. 31, U821. Mountain. (I. pallida, I. noli-me-
tangere, Pursh and Michaux, J. B.)

Limnanthacece.

Floerkea lacustris. June 7, 1822. Nuns' Island. (F. proserpina-
coides, Willd., Gray, J. B.)

204 Catalogue of Canadian Plants,

Rutacece.

Zanthoxylum fraxineum (pricky ash). June 3, 1821. Garden
(Z. Americanum.)

Jlnacardiacece.

Rhus typhina (stag's-horn sumach). July 18, 1821. Mountain.
" toxicodendron (poison ivy), var. quercifolium. June 20, 1821.
Below McGillivray's.
VitacecB.

Vitis riparia (wild grape, winter grape). June 13, 1821. In an

orchard. (V. cordifolia, var. riparia, J. B.)
Cissus hederacea (American ivy), Pursh. Sept. 18, 1821. Moun-
tain. (Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michaux, J. B.)
Rhamnacea.

Rhamnus alnifolius (buck-thorn). June 4, 1821. Savanne, St.
Michel.
CelastracecE.

Celastrus scandens (wax-work). June 13, 1821. Nichol's garden.
Sapindacece.

Staphylea trifolia (bladder-nut). July 19, 1821. St. Martins.
Acer saccharinum (sugar maple). June 5, '21. Above Cleghorn's.
" rubrum (red maple). April 30, 1824, and Sept. 2*1.
" spicatum (mountain maple). May 31, 1821. Mountain.
Polygalaceee.

Polygala verticillata (milk-wort). Sept. 11 T 1821. Boucherville 1
u paucifolia, Blair. [Island.

Legwninosce.

Trifolium repens (white clover). July 8, 1821. Mountain.

" pratense (red clover). June 13, 1821. Papineau Wood.
Astragalus Canadensis. Sept. 8, 1821. Island opposite Point St.

Charles.
Hedysarum glutinosum. 1821. Papineau Wood. (Desmodium
nudiflorum, DC.)
u acuminatum. Aug. 2, 1821. Mountain, &c. (Des-
modium acuminatum, DC.)
" Canadense. July 18, 1821. Cross-road beyond the
Tanneries. (Desmodium Canadense, DC.)
Vicia cracca (wild vetch). 1820.

Lathyrus stipulaceus (marsh vetchling). July 9, 1821. Shore ?
Chapman's Brewery. (L. palustris, var. myrtifolius.)
" venoaus. July 23, 1821. River St. Pierre.
" palustris (marsh vetchling). July 14, 1&21. St. Martin \
also Three Rivers.
(Phaseolus diversifolius, J. B.)

Vicia sativa (common vetch). July 21. Nichol's Gully.
Glycine apios (ground-nut). Aug. 22, 1821. Nichol's Gully, &c.
(Apios tuberosa, Torrey.)
" monoica. Aug. 20, 1821. HallowelFs, &c. (Arnphicar-
paea monoica, Toirey.)
Rosacea.

Prunus PennsylvaDica (wild cherry). May 22, 1821. Nichol's.

(Cerasus Pennsylvaniea, J. B.)

" serotina (choke cherry). May 29, '21. Nichol's. (?Virginiana.>

Spiraea latifolia (meadow sweet). Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau Woods.

(S. salicifolia, Gray, J. B.)

" tomentosa, second specimen. August 2, 1821, Papineau,

Woods, &c.
" opulifolia, second specimen. July 19, 1821. St. Martin.
Agrimonia eupatoria. July 19, 1821. Below Quesnel's.
Sanguisorba Canadensis (Canadian burnet). 1820. Sararme.

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. 105

Geum rivale (purple avens). June 11, 1821. Hallo-well's, &c.
" album. June 29, 1821. Lachine Woods. (G. Virginianum,

Gray, J. B.)
" strictum (Canadense). July 8, 1821. Mountain.
Potentilla anserina. June 18, 1821. Common.
" palustris.

" fruticosa. June 4, 1821. Savanne. July 14, 1821.
" tridentata. July 2, 1822. Three Rivers.
" Norvegica. July 19, 1821. Common.
" simplex (cinquefoil). June 22, 1821. Field above
Cemetiere. (P. Canadensis.)
Fragaria Canadensis (Virginian strawberry). May 18, 1821.

Common.
Dalibarda repens. July 14, 1821. Savanne et aliis.
Rubus villosus (blackberry). June 11, 1821. Mountain.

" strigosus (wild raspberry). June 29, 1821. Lachine Wood.
" odoratus (purple-flowering raspberry). June 22, 1821.

Mountain.
" trivialis (low blackberry). June 22, 1821. Mountain.

(R. Canadensis, Gray, J. B.)
" trifloris (dwarf raspberry) May 15,'21. Papineau Woods,&c.
" occidentalis (black raspberry). June 6, 1821. McGillivray's.
Rosa Carolina. June 20, 1821. Below McGillivray's. (Probably
R. blanda, J. B.)
" Carolina. July 23, 1821. Bank of River St. Pierre.
" rubiginosa (sweet-briar). June 20, '21. Below McGillivray's.
Crataegus coccinea (scarlet-fruited thorn). May 30, 1821. Nichol's.
" crus-galli (cock-spur thorn). June 6, '21. McGillivray's.
" tomentosa (black or pear thorn), var. punctata, Gray.
Aronia melanocarpa. June 16, 1821. Papineau Woods. (Pyrus
arbutifolia, Torrey, J. B.)
" ovalis (shad-bush). May 31, 1821. Mountain. (Ame-

lanchier Canadensis, var. oblongifolia, Torrey.)
" botryapium. May 20, 1821. Mountain. (Amelanchier
Canadensis.)
Sorbus Americana (mountain ash). June 16, 1821. Papineau
Woods. (Pyrus Americana, DC.)
LythracecB.

Lythrum verticillatum. Aug. 8, 1821. Mouth of River St. Pierre.
(Nescea verticillata, J. B.)

Onagracece.

OEnothera muricata. July 19, 1821. Below Quesnel's. (CE.
biennis, var. muricata.)
" biennis (evening primrose). July 19, 1821. Below

Quesnel's, et aliis. (Var. grandiflora, J. B.)
« pusilla. June 18, 1821. ((E. pumila, J. B.)

Epilobium augustifolium (willow herb). July 14, 1821. Savanne,
et aliis.
" tetragonum. July 29, 1821. Swamp, St. Denis Street.

(E. coloratum, Torrey, J. B.)
11 palustre. August 11, 1821. Woods beyond Gregory's.

(Probably E. coloratum, J. B.)
" lineare. August 11, 1821. Gregory's Meadows. (E,

palustre, var. lineare, Gray, J. B.)
Isnardia palustris (water purslane). July 23, 1821. Bank of the

River St. Pierre. (Ludwigia palustris, Ell., Gray, J. B.)
Circaea Lutetiana (enchanter's night-shade). July 14, 1821.
Savanne, &c.
11 Alpina. July 12, 1821. Mountain, &c.

106 Catalogue of Canadian Plants.

Myriophyllum spicatum (water milfoil). July 23, 1821. Gregory's
Pond.
Grossulacea.

Ribes ? June 4, 1854. Savanne. (Char, very close to

R. rotundifolium, Micbaux, Torrey, J. B.)
" triflorum (wild gooseberry). May 30, 1821. Papineau Woods.
(Very likely R. cynosbati [see Torr. and also Gray] J. B )
" floridum (wild black currant). May 22, 1821. Hallowell's

Swamp, &c.
" rubrum (red currant). May 30, 1821.
" prostratum (fetid currant). L'Iber.
u lacustre (swamp gooseberry). June 4, 1821. Savanne.
CucurbitacecB.

Sicyos angulatus (star cucumber). Sept. 18, 1821. Field between
Suburbs.
Crassulacece.

Penthorum sedoides (Ditch stone-crop). July 23, 1821. Edge of
River St. Pierre.
Saxifragacece.

Saxifraga nivalis (early saxifrage). May 20, 1821. Mountain.

(S. Virginiensis, J. B.)
Chrysoplenium Americanum (golden saxifrage). 1821. Mountain.
Mitella dyphilla (mitre wort). May 23, 1821. Mountain.

" cordifolia. June 4, 1821. Savanne, &c. (M. nuda, J. B.)
Tiarella cordifolia. May 23, 1821. Mountain.
UmbellifercB.

Pastinaca sativa (parsnip). July 19, 1821. Common.
Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip). June 30, 1821. Bank, mouth

of the River St. Pierre.
Smyrnium integerrimum. June 22, 1821. Small mountain. (Zi-
zia integerrina, DC, J. B.)
u aureum. June 7, 1822. Nuns' Island. (Thaspium au-
reum, Nutt, Gray, J. B.)
Sanicula Marilandica (snake root). June 18, 1821. Mountain, &c.
Cicuta maculata (spotted cowbane). July 19, 1821. Fields below
McGillivray's, &c.
" bulbifera. Aug. 11, 1821. Woods beyond Gregory's.
Sium lineare. July 23, 1821. Bank of River St. Pierre.

" latifolium. July 27, 1821. Near Gregory's.
Chferophyllum Canadense. (Cryptotasnia Canadensis, DC. Tor-
rey, J. B.)
Myrrhis longistylis (smooth sweet cicely). June 29, 1821. Lachine

Woods. (Osmorrhiza longistylis, DC., J. B.)
Chaerophyllum Claytoni (hairy sweet cicely). June 11, 1822.
Lachine Woods, Mountain. (Osmorrhiza brevistylis, DC,
see Torrey, J. B.)
Jlraliacece.

Aralia racemosa (spikenard). August 2.

" nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla). June 11, 1821. Mountain.
11 hispida (bristly sarsaparilla). July 5, 1822. Three Rivers.
" trifolia (dwarf ginseng). May 15, 1821. Papineau Woods.
Panax quinquefolia (ginseng). 1821. Mountain. (Aralia quin-
quefolia, J. B.)
Cornacece.

Cornus Canadensis (bunch-berry, pigeon-berry). 1821. Not un-
common.
" alternatifolia. Aug. 31, 1825.
11 sericea (silky cornel or dogwood). June 30, 1825.
" circinata (round-leaved dogwood). 1821.
" alba (red-osier dogwood). 1821. (C stolonifera, Mi-
chaux, J. B.)

Catalogue of Canadian Plants, 107

Caprifoliacece.

Lonicera parviflora (small honeysuckle). 1821. Mountain.
Xylosteon ciliatum (fly honeysuckle). May 25, 1822. Savanne and

Papineau Woods. (Lonicera ciliata, Muhl., Gray, J. B.)
Lonicera oblongifolia (swamp honeysuckle), Muhl., J. B.
Linnaea borealis (twin flower). July 14, 1821. Savanne, &c.
Diervilla humilis (bush honeysuckle). 1821. Mountain. (Dier-

villa trifida, Moench, Gray, J. B.)
Triosteum perfoliatum. Oct. 3, 1821. Papineau Woods.
Sambucus Canadensis (elder), July 18, 1821. Roadside, cross-
road near Cote St. Hilaire.
" pubescens (red-berried elder). May 20, 1821. Mountain.

(S. pubens, Gray, J. B.)
" ebulus. July 1, 1821. Roadside, Cote St. Antoine.

(Dwarf-elder mentioned in Hooker, Gray and Torrey,
J. B.)
Viburnum oxy coccus (tree-cranberry). June 8, 1821. Nichol's
Gully. (V. opulus, L., Gray and Torrey, J. B.)
" lentago (sheep-berry). June 6, 1821. Nichol's Gully.

" acerifolium. July 16.

" lantanoides. 1820.

" nudum. July 2, 1822. Three Rivers ; also wood above

Cadieux. (Approaches var. cassinoides, Gray, J.B.)
Rubiacece.

Galium asprellum (rough bedstraw). 1821. Common.

" Bermudianum. June 22, 1821. Mountain. (More likely

G. Circaesans [see Gray, Torrey and Hooker], J. B.)
" triflorum. June 22, 1821. Mountain.
11 strictum. July 29. (Equivalent to G. boreale, L, [see

Hooker, Torrey and Gray,] J. B.)
" aparine. June "7, 1822. Nuns' Island.
" trifidum. (L. J. B.)
" boreale.
Mitchella repens (partridge-berry). July 14, 1821. Savanne et

aliis
Cephalanthus occidentalis (button-bush). August 11, 1821. Gre-
gory's Meadows.
Houstonia (Oldenlandia) purpurea, vel ciliolata. Blair,

Belleville, and above Fort George.
Houstonia caerulea, Gray.

Composite.

Eupatorium verticillatum. 1820. Cote St. Paul. (Eupatorium
purpureum, J. B.)
" maculatum. August 24, 1821. Papineau Woods.

(Eupatorium purpureum.)
" ageratoides (white snake-root). August 20, 1821.

Hallowell's.
" perfoliatum (thorough-wort). August 9, 1821. Be-

tween Recollet Street and St. Antoine Suburbs.
Aster divergens. Aug. 28, 1821. Nichol's. (A. miser, var. J. B.)
11 lanceolatus? Aug. 22, 1821.
" macrophyllus. Aug. 31, 1821. Mountain.
" patens. August 31, 1821. Common.
" cordifolius. August 28, 1821. Common.
" rigidas. Sept. 10, 1821. (Diplopappus linarifolius.)
" sagittifolius. Sept. 3, 1821. Cote St. Paul.
" amygdalinus, Pursh. (A. umbellatus, Aiton.) Aug. 11,
1821. Woods beyond Gregory's. (Diplopappus umbel-
latus, Torrey and Gray.)

1 08 Catalogue of Canadian Plants,

Aster puniceus. August 20, 1821. Hallowell's.

" acuminatus. August 17, 1821. Mountain.
Erigeron heterophyllum (scabious). Aug. 28, 1821. Cross-road,
Cote des Neige3. (Erigeron annuum.)
" strigosum. July 14, 1821. Savanne.
" Canadense (horse-weed). Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau Road.
" purpureum (flea-bane). June 13, 1821. Mountain. (E.
Philadelphicum.)
Solidago livida. Sept. 8, 1821. Cote St. Paul. (S. cresia.)
" latifolia. August 17, 1821. Mountain.
" bicolor. August 31, 1821. Mountain.
" microphylla. August 3, 1824.

" nemoralis. Aug. 31, 1821. Field above Cleghorn's.
" altissima, var. vulgaris. Aug. 24, '21. Papineau Woods.
" procera. August 20, 1821. Wood below Hallowell's.

(S. Canadensis, var. procera, Torrey, J. B.)
" Canadensis. Aug. 3, 1821. Nichol's Gully, &c. &c.
" lanceolata. Sept, 8, 1821. Cote St. Paul.
Ambrosia artemisifolia (Roman rag-weed). Roadside.

" trifida (great rag-weed). August 8, 1821. Common.
Xanthium strumarium (cockle-bur). August 13, 1821. Bridge,

River St. Pierre.
Rudbeckia laciniata (cone-flower). August 28, 1821. Cross-road,

Cote des Neiges ; also River St. Pierre.
Heliantbus decapetalus (wild sunflower). Aug. 17, 1821. Mountain.

" tracheleifolius. August, 1821. Mountain.

Bidens pilosa (tick-weed). July 17, 1821. Field above French
burying-ground.
" connata (swamp beggar-ticks), August 17, 1821. Field

above French burying-ground.
" Beckii (water-marigold). August 27, 1821. River, near

Point St. Charles.
" cernua (bur-marigold). Sept. 3, 1821. Cote St. Paul.
Common.
Helenium autumnale (sneeze-weed). Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville

Islands.
Achillea millefolium (yarrow). 1821. Common.
Anthemis cotula (May-weed). 1821. Very common ; roadside.

(Maruta cotula.)
Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum (white-weed). June 13, 1821.

(Leucanthemum vulgare.)
Artemisia vulgaris (mug-wort). Sept. 8, 1821. Common.
Gnaphalium uliginosum (cud-weed). August 20, 1821. Between
suburbs.
" luteo-album? Sept. 8, 1821. Cote St Paul.

" margaritaceum (pearly everlasting). August 2, 1821.

Papineau Wood. ( Anl.ennaria margaritacea, J. B.)
" plantaginifolium (plantain-leaved everlasting). 1821.

Common. (Antennaria plantaginifolia, J. B.)
Senecio vulgaris (groundsel). July 7, 1822. Roadside.

" hieracifolius (fire-weed). August 15, 1821. Roadside.
(Erechtites hieracifolia.)
Cnicus altissimus (tall thistle). Aug. 28, 1821. Road St. Catherine.
(Cirsium altissimum, J. B.)
" muticus (swamp thistle). (Cirsium muticum.)
" discolor. August 17, 1821. Field above French burying-
ground. (Cirsium discolor.)
" horridulus (yellow thistle). 1821. Very common. (Cir-
sium horridulum.)

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. 109

Arctium lappa (burdock). August 7, 1821. Common. (Lappa

major, Gray, J. B.)
Cichorium intylus (chicory). July 19, 1821. Rather common.
Leontodon taraxacum. 1821. Very common. (Taraxacum

dens-leonis.)
Hieraceum Kalmii (Canada hawk-weed). Aug. 17, 1821. Mountain.

(H. Canadense, Torrey, J. B.)
Hieracium paniculatum (panicled hawk-weed). August 2, 1821.
Papineau Wood.
" Marianum (rough hawk-weed). Aug. 24, 1821. Gully,

Papineau Road. (H. scabrum, Torrey, J. B.)
Prenanthes cordata (tall white-lettuce). Aug. 24, 1821. Papineau
Wood. (Nabalus altissimus, Torrey, J. B.)
" virgata? Aug. 17, 1821. Mountain.

" alba (white-lettuce). Sept. 8, 1821. Cote St. Paul.

(" Nabalus albus.")
" racemosa. August 11, 1821. Hallowell's. (Nabalus

racemosus.)
Sonchus arvensis (corn sow-thistle). August 19, 1821. Between
suburbs.
" palustris. Aug. 17, 1821. Between suburbs.
" leucophaeus. July 14, 1821. Savanne, et aliis. (Mul-

gedium leucophaeum, Gray, J B.)
" oleraceus (sow-thistle). July 19, 1821. Below Quesnel's.
Lactuca elongata (wild lettuce). Aug. 24, 1821. Papineau Wood.
Lobeliacece.

Lobelia cardinalis (cardinal flower). Sept. 3, 1821. Gulley, Cote
St. Paul.
" inflata (Indian tobacco). Aug. 2, '21. Papineau Wood, &c.
" Kalmii. Sept. 11, '21. Cote St. Paul, Boucherville Islands.
Campanulacece.

Campanula rotundifolia (harebell). July 20, 1822. Falls of Grande
Mou, River St. Maurice.
" aparinoides (marsh bellflower), Pursh. Aug.]17, 1821.

Meadow between suburbs.
Ericacea.

Vaccinium corymbosum (swamp blueberry), Torrey, J. B.

" Pennsylvanicum (Torrey), (or V. corymbosum, var.

pallidum, of Gray, J. B.
11 oxycoccus (small cranberry). Oxycoccus palustris.

1820. Savanne St. Michel.
Gaultheria hispidula (creeping snowberry). August 21, 1821.
(Chiogenes hispidula, Torrey and Gray, J. B.)
" procumbens (winter-green, tea-berry, checker berry).

Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau Woods.
Epigaea repens (trailing arbutus, May flower). 1821. Three Rivers.
Andromeda polifolia. May 26, 1825.

u calyculata, Torrey. (Cassandra calyculata, Gray, J.B.)

Kalmia glauca (pale laurel). July 14, 1821. Savanne.

11 angustifolia (sheep laurel). July 14, 1821. Savanne.
Ledum palustre (Labrador tea). June 4, 1821. Savanne.
Rhodora Canadensis. June 4, 1821, Savanne, and June 14, 1821,

wood above Cadieux.
Pyrola rotundifolia. July 8, 1821. Mountain.

11 uninora. July 8, 1821. Mountain swamp, et aliis. (Mo-

neses uniflora, J. B.)
u umbellata. Aug. 2, 1821. Mountain and Papineau Woods.

(chimaphila umbellata, J. B.)
u secunda. July 8, 1821. Mountain swamp.
" asarifolia. July 10, 1822. Portage des Gres, Black River,
(var. P. rotundifolia.)

110 Catalogue of Canadian Plants,

Pyrola minor. July 8, 1821. Mountain swamp.
" elliptica (with two bracts). July 2, 1825.
Monotropa uniflora (Indian-pipe, death-flower). August 7, 1821.

Mountain.
Ilex Canadensis (mountain holly). June 4, 1821. Savanne. (Ne-

mophanthes Canadensis, DC, Gray, J. B.)
Prinos verticillatus (black alder). July 3, .1822, "Wood above
Cadieux. Oct. 3, 1821, Papineau Woods. (Ilex verticillata,
Gray, J. B.)
PlantaginacecB.

Plantago major (plantain). 1821. Gregory's "Wood. Common.
Primulacece.

Lysimachia capitata (tufted loose-strife). July 4, 1822. Island

above Nuns' Island. (Naumburgia thyrsiflora, Gray, J. B.)
Lysimachia ciliata. Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau "Woods, &c.

" racemosa. June 23, 1821. Gregory's Meadows. (L.

stricta, Ait., J. B.)
Trientalis Americana (starflower). June 11, 1821. Mountain, &c.
Lentibulacece.

Utricularia vulgaris (bladder- wort). July 23,1821. River St. Pierre.
Orobanehacea.

Orobanche Virginiana (beech-drops). Oct. 3, '21. Papineau "Woods.
(Epiphegus Americanum, Torrey, and E. Virginiana, Gray, J.B.)
Scrophuluriacece.

Scrophularia Marilandica (fig-wort). June 11, 1821. Mountain.

(S. nodosa, J. B.)
Verbascum thapsus (mullein) 1821. Common in fields.
Mimulus ringens (monkey flower). July 12, 1821. Pond at the

Cross, et aliis.
Lindermia pyxidaria (false pimpernel). Sept. 8, 1821. Rocks, Point
St. Charles. (L. attenuata, Torrey, Ilysanthes gratioloides,
Gray, J. B.)
Veronica anagallis (water speedwell). June 27, 1821. Lachine
"Woods.
" scutellata (marsh speedwell). June 29, 1821. Lachine

"Woods.
" peregrina (purslane speedwell). June 4, 1822. Rather

common, Mountain side.
" serpyllifolia (thyme-leaved speedwell). May 29, 1821.
(same with white flowers, Berthier.)
Gerardia purpurea. Aug. 17, 1821. Between the Recollet and St

Antoine Suburbs.
Pedicularis Canadensis. May 31, 1821. Mountain.
Melampyrum arvense. July 12, 1822. Three Rivers. (M. Ame-
ricanum.)
Acanthacece.

Justicia pedunculosa (water willow). June 30, 1821. Mouth of the
St. Pierre. (Dianthera Americana, J. B.)
Verbenacete.

Verbena angustifolia. July 3, 1822. Island above Nuns'.

" hastata (blue vervain). July 18, 1821. Below Quesnel's.
" urticifolia. August 1, 1821. Roadside, Cote St. Antoine,
et aliis.
Phrymna leptostachia (lop-seed). July 14, 1821. Savanne, et aliis.

Labiates.

Teucrium Canadense (wood-sage). Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville

Island.
Lycopus Europaeus. July 29, 1821. Meadows.

" Virginicus (bugle-weed). Aug. 2 1821. Papineau "Wood.

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. Ill

Mentha tenuis. Sept. 1, 1821. Roadside, Cote St. Charles. (1L

viridis.
Mentha borealis (wild-mint). July 27, 1821. Mouth of River St.

Pierre, et aliis. (M. Canadensis, Torrey, J. B.)
Pycnanthemum lanceolatum (mountain-mint). October 10, 1821.

Nuns' Island.
Hyssopus petoides. August 17, 1821. Mountain. (Lophanthus

nepetoides, J. B.)
Nepeta cataria (catnip). Aug. 7, 1821. Mountain, near McTavish's.
Dracocephalum Virginianum (false dragon-head). Sept. 8, 1821.

Small island opposite Point St. Charles. (Physostegia Virgi-

niana, Gray, J. B.)
Prunella vulgaris (heal-all). July 19, 1821. Below Quesnel's.
Scutellaria lateriflora (skull-cap). August 11, 1821. Wood beyond
Gregory's,
galericulata. Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau "Woods, et aliis.
" parvula. June 22, '21. Mountain, below Priests' farm.
Galeopsis tetrahit (hemp-nettle). August 1, 1821. Common.
Stachys aspera. Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville Islands. (S. palus-

tris, var. aspera, Gray, J. B.)
Leonurus cardiacea (mother-wort). September 2, 1821. Roadside,

Sherbrooke Street.
Borraginacece.

Lycopsis arvensis (small bugloss). June 20, 1821. Open lot, St.

James Street.
Lithospermum officinale (gromwell). 1821. Common.
Cynoglossum officinale (hound's-tongue). 1821. Common.
Myosotis lappula (stick-seed). 1821. Common. (Echinosper-

mum lappula, J. B.)
Cynoglossum amplificaule (wild comfrey). June 11, 1821. Mountain.

(C. Virginicum, Gray, J. B.)
Hydrophyllacece .

Hydrophyllum Virginicum (water-leaf). June 16, 1821. Papineau

Woods, &c.
Convolvulacece.

Convolvulus sepium (hedge bindweed). July 27, 1821. Near the

mouth of River St. Pierre. (Calystegia sepium, R. Br. Gray,

J. B.)
Convolvulus stans (low bindweed). July 2, 1822. Three Rivers.

(Calystegia spithanuea of Pursh [see Gray and Torrey], J. B.)
Cuscuta Americana (dodder). Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville Island.

(C. Gronovii, Willd., Gray, J. B.)
Solanacece.

Solanum nigrum (nightshade). Aug. 8, 1821. Garden, Point St.

Charles, &c.
Nicandra physaloides. Sept. 7, 1821. Garden, but wild.
Datura stramonium (thorn-apple). Sept. 3, 1821. Grey Nuns' court.
Hyoscyamus niger (black henbane). 1821. Common, roadside.
Gentianacece.

Gentiana saponaria (soapwort gentian). Sept. 3, 1821. Meadows,

Cote St. Paul, Sept. 11.
Menyanthes trifoliata (buck-bean). May 28/21. Pool near the Cross.
Jlpocynacece.

Apocynum hypericifolium (Indian hemp). July 27, 1821. Bridge,

River St. Pierre. (A. cannabinea, var. hypericifolium, Gray.)
Apocynum androssemifoliuni (dogbane). June 21, 1821. Mountain.
jisclepiadacece.

Asclepias syriaca (milkweed, silkweed). July 27, 1821. Common.
(A. cornuti, Gray, J. B.)
* incarnata. July 22, '21. Meadows, Recollet Suburb, &c.

112 Catalogue of Canadian Plants.

Oleacea.

Fraxinus epiptera (white ash). June 25, 1821. Mountain. (F.
Americana.)
11 sambucifolia (black ash). June 5, Nichol's, and May 17.
Jlristolochiacece.

Asarum Canadense (wild ginger). May 15, 1821. Mountain, Pa-
pineau Woods, &c.
Chenopodiacece..

Chenopodium album (lamb's quarter). 1822. Common.

" hybridum (goose-foot). Aug. 28, 1821. St. Cathe-

rine Wood.
Blitum capitatum (strawberry-blite). 1820.

Atriplex patula (orache). Aug. 22, 1821. Roadside. (A. hastata,
Gray, J. B.)
Amarantacece.

Amaranthus hypochondriacus (prince's feather). Sept. 17, 1821.
Roadside, Bleury Street.
" viridis. Aug. 13, 1821. Vacant lot, St. James Street.

" retroflexus (pig-weed). Sept. 3, 1821. Common.

Polygonacea.

Polygonum Persicaria. July 19, 1821. Common.

" lapathifolium. July 21, 1821. Between Suburbs.

(P. nodosum, Pers., Gray, J. B.)
M coccineum (amphibium, L.), var. terrestre. Sept. 11,

1821. Boucherville Island.
" Pennsvlvanicum. July 23, 1821. Mouth of River St.

Pierre, et aliis.
" mite. Sept. 3, 1822. Meadows, Cote St. Paul.

« Virginianum. Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville Island.

■" aviculare. August 11, 1821. (Common with var. P.

tenue, J. B.)
" sagittatum. Aug. 17, 1821. Between Suburbs.

" hydropiperoides. Aug. 31, 1821. Very common.

" coccineum. July 29, 1821. Swamp, St. Denis Street.

(P. amphibium, var. aquaticum, J. B.)
11 scandens. August 20, 1821. Near Hallowell's. (P.

dumetorum, Gray, J. B.)
" convolvulus. July 19, 1821. Below Quesnel's.

Rumex Britannicus (swamp dock). August 11, 1821. Gregory's
meadows. (See Torrey, also Gray, R. verticillatus.)
" verticillatus. June 29, 1821. Lachine Road.
" crispus (curled dock). 1821. Common.
" obtusifolius (bitter dock). July 13, 1821. Ditch near

Beaver Hall.
" acetosella (field sorrel). June 16, 1821. Papineau Road,
common.
Thymeleacea.

Dirca palustris (leather-wood).
Euphorbiacece.

Euphorbia Helioscopia (sun-spurge).
Acalypha Caroliniana. Aug. 7, 1821. Common.
Urticacece.

Ulmus Americana (elm). April 30, 1824. Nichol's Gully, &c.

" fulva (slippery or red elm). April 30, 1824.
Celtis occidentalis (hackberry),

Urtica divaricata (wood-nettle). Aug. 7,1821. Mountain. (U.
Canadensis, Torrey, Laportea Canadensis, Gray.)
« pumila (buck-weed). Aug. 17, 1821. Mountain. (Adike

pumila, Torrey, Pilea pumila, Gray.)
« procera (tall-nettle). Aug. 20, 1821. Wood near Hallowell's
«&c. (U. gracilis, Gray.)

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. 11

.->

Pilea glabra. May 19, 1821. St. Martin. (P. Americana, Torrey,

var. pubescens, Gray, J. B.)
Cannabis sativa (hemp). July 29, 1821. Common, roadside.
PlatanacecB.

Platanus occidentalis (plane-tree). May 29, 1825.
Juglandacece.

Juglans alba (shell-bark hickory). (Carya alba.)

" tomentosa (mocker-nut hickory). (Carya tomentosa.)
" sulcata (thick shell-bark hickory). (Carya sulcata.)
" amara (bitter-nut hickory). (Carya amara.)
" cinerea (butternut). Mountain.
CupulifertR,

Quercus olivaeformis (bur-oak). (Q. macrocarpa, var. olivaefor-
mis, Gray.)
" rubra (red oak).
" coccinea (scarlet oak).
Corylus avellana (hazel-nut). June 22, 1821. Small mountain.

(C. rostrata, J. B.)
Carpinus Americana (hornbeam).
Ostrya Virginica (hop hornbeam).
Fagus ferruginea (beech).
MyricacecB.

Myrica gale (sweet gale). Sept., 1821. Island opposite Point St.
Charles.
Betulacece.

Betula nana (dwarf-birch). June 9, 1825.

" papyracea (canoe birch). May 11, 1825, and Sept. 11.
" populifolia (poplar-leaved birch). Sept. 26. (B. alba,
var. populifolia.)
Alnus serrulata (smooth alder.) July 29.

" undulata (green alder). June 11, 1821. (A. viridis.)
Salicacece.

Populus angulata (angled cotton-wood). Sept., 1821.
" tremuloides (aspen). May 10, 1821.
" grandidentata. September 30.
Conifer ce.

Pinus balsamea (balsam fir). May 25, 1821. Savanne. (Abies
balsamea, Gray.)
' strobus (white pine). May 25, 1821. Savanne.
M pendula (larch, tamarack). (Larix Americana.)
Taxus Canadensis (ground-hemlock). May 20, 1824.
Jlracece.

Arum triphyllum (Indian turnip). June 16, 1821. Papineau "Wood.
Symplocarpus fcetidus (skunk-cabbage). Salisb.
Typhacece.

Sparganium simplex (bur-reed). July 23, 1821. Meadows near
Gregory's.
" ramosum. June 29, 1821. Lachine Wood, et aliis.
Typha latifolia (cat-tail). July 24, 1821. Savanne.
" vulgaris. Sept. 11, 1821. Boucherville Islands.
Lemnacece.

Lemna polyrrhiza (duck-weed). Sept. 8, 1821. Common.
Naiadacece.

Potamogeton compressus (pond-weed). July 29, 1824.
" fluitans. August 14, 1821.

" lucens. Sept. 8, '21. River, near Point St. Charles.

tt natans. July 23, 1821. River St. Pierre.

" perfoliatus. July 27, 1821. River St. Pierre and

Three Rivers.

Canadian Nat. 3 Vol. IV. No. 2.

114 Catalogue of Canadian Plants.

Alismacete.

Alisma plantago (water-plantain). July 23, 1821. Near Gregory^.

(Var. Americanum, J. B.)
Sagittaria sagittifolia (arrow-head). July 29, 1821. (Var.
variabilis, Gray.)
" latifolia. Aug. 4. At Nichol's. (Var. variabilis.)

" gracilis. July 27. River St. Pierre.

Hydrocharidacece.

Vallisneria spiralis (tape-grass). Sept. 8, 1821. River, near Point
St. Charles.
Orchidacece.

Orchis spectabilis. 1821.

" dilatata. June 11, 1821. Mountain swamp. (Platan thera

dilatata.)
" fimbriata. July 23, 1821. Gregory's Meadows, et aliis.

(Platanthera psycodes, var. grandiflora, Torrey.)
" orbiculata. June 11, 1821. Mountain-swamp and Portage
des Gres. (Platanthera orbiculata.)
Habenaria macrophylla. July 10, 1822. Portage des Gres.

(Platanthera orbiculata.)
Satyrium bracteatum. July 5, 1822. Swamp and Rivers. (Pla-
tanthera bracteata.)
Neottia cernua (ladies' tresses). Sept. 3, 1821. Cote St. Paul.

(Spiranthes cernua, Torrey, J. B.)
Arethusa bulbosa. July 5, 1822. Swamp, Three Rivers.

" ophioglossoides. July 5, 1821. Swamp, Three Rivers.
(Pogonia ophioglossoides.)
Calypso borealis. May 25, 1822.
Cymbidium pulchellum (grass-pink). July 14, 1821. Savanne.

(Calopogon pulchellus.)
Atalaxis liliifolia. July 14, 1821. Savanne. (Liparis liliifolia.)
Cymbidium odontorhizum. July, 1822. Papineau Wood. (Co-
rallorhiza odontorhiza.)
" corallorhizum. June 4, 1821. Savanne. (Corallor-

hiza innata.)
Cypripedium arietinum. June 4, 1821. Savanne.

" humile (low ladies'-slipper). June 2, 1822. (C

acaule.)
" spectabile (gay ladies'-slipper). June 25, 1821.

Mountain-swamp.
u pubescens (yellow ladies'-slipper). June 4, 1821.

Savanne.
u . parviflorum (small yellow ladies'-slipper). June 4,

1821. Savanne.
Iridaceee,

Sisyrinchium anceps (blue-eyed grass). June 11, 1821. Common
in fields. (S. Bermudiana, J. B.)
Smilace.ce.

Smilax peduncularis. June 25, 1821. Mountain.
Trillium grandiforum (wake-robin). May 14, 1821. Gulley at
Tanneries, Mountain, &c.
" pictum. May 26, 1821. Papineau Wood. (T. erythro-

carpum, Michaux, Gray, J. B.)
u cernuum.

" erectum. May 15, 1821. Papineau Road.
Medeola Virginica (Indian cucumber). June 11, 1821. Swamp,
Mountain.
Liliacece.

Convallariaangustifolia (Solomon's seal). May 26, 1821. Papineau
Road. (Polygonatum biflorum, Ell., Gray, J. B.)

Catalogue of Canadian Plants. 115

Convallaria bifolia. June 11, 1821. Mountain. (Smilacina
bifolia, Ker, var. Canadensis, Gray, J. B.)
" polygonatum. May 30, 1821. Mountain. (Strep-

topus roseus. Michaux, Gray, J. B.)
" racemosa. June 17, 1821. Mountain. (Smilacina

racemosa, Desf., Gray, J. B.)
" stellata. June 4, 1821. Savanne. (Smilacina

stellata, Desf., Gray, J. B.)
" borealis. June 4, 1821. Savanne, et aliis. (Clin-

tonia borealis, Rat"., Gray, J. B.)
Allium Canadense (wild garlic), Kalm. July 3, 1821. Island

above Nuns' Island.
Lilium Philadelphicum (wild orange-lily.) (L.) J. B.
" Canadense (Canadian lily). 1820. Laprairie.
Erythronium dens-canis (dog's-tooth violet). May 5, 1821. Moun-
tain. (E. Americanum, Smith, J. B.)
MelanthacecB.

Uvularia grandiflora (large bell-wort). May 15, '21. PapineauRoad.

" sessilifolia. May 15, 1821. PapineauRoad.
Veratrum viride (white hellebore). July 5, 1821. Three River'f

swamp.
Tofieldia glutinosa. Cleghorn's, Quebec. June 28, 1827.
Pontederiacece.

Pontederia cordata (pickerel-weed). July 27, 1821. Mouth of
River Saint Pierre.
Graminece.

Zizania clavulosa (Indian rice). July 27, 1821. River St. Pierre.
(Z. aquatica.)
Equisetacea.

Equisetum arvense (mare's-tail).
" palustre.
" limosum.
Filices.

Polypodium vulgare. August 7, 1821. Mountain.

Struthiopteris Pennsylvania. July 3, 1822. Papineau Woods.

(S. Germanica, J.B.) (Ostrich-fern).
Pteris gracilis. June 15, 1822. Mountain. ( Allosorus gracilis,
J. B.)
" aquilina (brake). August 2, 1821. Common.
Adiantum pedatum (maiden-hair fern). June 25, 1821. Mountain.
Aeplenium rhizophyllum. April 30, 1822. Cleghorn's garden;
originally from St. Helen's. (Camptosorus rhiz-
ophyllus, J. B.)
" thelypteroides. July 17, 1821. Mountain.
" augustifolium. June 25, 1821. Mountain. (Asplenium
Filix-foemina, J. B.)
Athyrium bulbiferum. June 25, 1821. Mountain. (Cystopteris
bulbifera.)
" Thelypteris. Aug. 11, 1821. Gregory's Meadows. (As-
pidium Thelypteris, J. B.)

" . July 16. (Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.)

Aspidium dilatatum. Oct. 3, 1820. Papineau Wood. (A. spin-
ulosum, var. dilatatum, Gray, J. B.)
" cristatum. June 16, 1821. Papineau Woods.
" Goldianum. June 15, 1822. Mountain. From Mr. Goldie.
11 marginale. June 16, 1821. Papineau Woods,
acrostichoides. Sept. 18, 1821. Mountain.

June 16, 1821. Papineau Wood3.

it

Onoclea sensibilis. Aug. 2, 1821. Papineau Woods.

1 16 Geographical Distribution of the Genus Allium.

Woodsia hyperborea. August 7, 1821. Mountain.
Osrnundaregalis (flowering-fern). August 11, 1821. Wood beyond
Gregory's.
" interrupta. June 16, 1821. Papineau Woods. (0.

Claytoniana.)
" cinnamomea. June 11, 1821. Mountain-swamp.
Botrychium gracile. June 25, 1821. Mountain (B. Virginicum.)
Lycopodiacece.

Lycopodium dendroideum. June 16, 1821. Papineau Wood.
" clavatum (club-moss). July. Papineau Wood.

" lucidulum. Oct. 3, 1821. Papineau Wood.

11 complanatum. Woods north of Papineau Road.

July 3.

ARTICLE VII. — Geographical distribution of the Genus Allium
in British North America. By George Barnston, Esq.

(Presented to the Natural History Society of Montreal.)

In the October number of this journal enquiry was made
as to whether the onion may not be a native of the north or
north-western parts of America, and report was made of onions
(of course the garden onion) having been brought from a place
y'clept "Le Jardin du Diable," situated on the borders of Lake
Temiscamingue. The querist surmises, on such grounds, that the
onion may be indigenous in the North-west territory ; and
strengthens his views by a quotation from Sir Alex. McKenzie's
voyages, that on the banks of McKenzie's River "there was plenty
of wild onions."

Premising, in the first place, that the voyageur understands
not exactly the onion of the gardens to be meant, when the term
" wild onions " or " oignons sauvages " is used, but any species of
the onion that may be met with in the different portions of the
country travelled through — in which general sense I have no
doubt it was employed by Sir Alex. McKenzie — I shall proceed
to shew, as far as can be determined from the labors of botanists
up to the present date, what are the various species of the genus
Allium that have been found on this continent, from the temperate
latitudes up to the frozen zone. I shall endeavour to group them
also, according to the different districts of country which the
species themselves seem to prefer, in hopes that thus a more distinct
idea may be formed of their geographical distribution.

The two southern species of the Allium, well described by Gray,
are A. striatum and A. tricoccum. The former possesses long
linear leaves, striate on the back, with an obscurely triangled

Geographical Distribution of the Genus Allium. 117

scape ; the latter has the leaves flat, and lance oblong-. Neither,
therefore, can possibly be confounded with the Allium cepa, the
true garden onion.

Allium cernuum and A. Canadense, somewhat more northern
species, are also sufficiently distinct. The former has the leaves
linear, sharply keeled, a loose or drooping umbel of rose-colored
flowers, borne on an angular scape ; the A. Canadense, well known
in this province, has also the leaves linear, and the flowers of a
pale rose color.

Allium Schoenoprasum (the Chive) is met with from the shores
of Lake Huron and Lake Superior as far as Great Bear Lake in
a northerly direction, and along the banks of the streams to the
Rocky Mountains, westwards. Douglas and Dr. Tolmie also ob-
tained it on some of the tributaries of the Columbia. It is the
only Allium which we discern in this latitude as crossing the
whole breadth of the continent, or we should rather say acquainted
with the waters of the Columbia as well as of the St. Lawrence.
Latterly it has been looked upon as the same plant as the A. Si-
biricum ; in which case we may allow it a still greater extension
than Europe and North America, and almost admit that it encir-
cles the globe in the northern temperate zone. Its mode of
growth, its deeply colored sepals, and other specific characters,
separate it from Allium cepa as well as from others of its genus.
We cannot but admire the acute discrimination of the botanist,
whether Linnaeus or another, who first gave the specific name.
Whoever has plaited rushes on the springy brae, whether in the
form of garters or fools-caps, or baskets for gowans, will admit
that he was no goose that gave to Chive its specific name ; and
whoever has been a year at college will own that there is no lan-
guage so well adapted as the Greek for giving a combination of
ideas in one epithet or term. To resume our subject, we come to
our fourth section.

Allium stellatum and A. reticulatum (the latter being proba-
bly the A. angulosum of Pursh) are plants common to the plains
of the Saskatchewan, but have been also found, it is said, on the
north-west coast. Their non-occurrence on the plateau westward
of the Rocky Mountains, between that mighty range and the
volcanic ridges of Mounts Rainier, St. Helens, Hood, and Jeffer-
son, may be accounted for by the dryness of that region, the
sanely wormwood plains of the middle country possessing an
atmosphere in many situations as arid as the steppes of Tartary.

118 Geographical Distribution of the Genus Allium.

As soon as the descent is made towards the Pacific, where the
moist ocean breezes have play, and deposit their humidity, the
A. stellatum and A. reticulatum resume their place in the western
flora. They have linear leaves, and are certainly specifically
distinct from the garden onion.

Two other species yet remain to be noticed, the A. acuminatum
and A. Douglasii. The former keeps, as far as we yet know, to
the north-west coast; the latter is found there also, but has been
likewise discovered on the Shoshonee or Snake Indian lands south
of the Blue Mountains, an inland district. They both possess
rose-colored flowers, and their umbels are loose or patent.

We thus perceive that the species of the Allium or Garlic genus
hitherto discovered in North America, have no more to do with
the garden onion than the garlic or chive themselves. Yet when
met with by the voyageur they are called, indiscriminately,
" oignons sauvages," or, if he speak English, " wild onions."
When the boats' crews are grouped together round a camp fire ?
if any of the party have picked up a few of these savoury little
bulbs, with which to regale his mess, a very earnest discussion
will sometimes arise as to the comparative merits of the "oignons
sauvao-es." Should one of the crew have ever had the good for-
tune to handle a spade or weeding-hoe in the gardens of Canada?
he immediately becomes the savan of the circle, and after due
inspection may, with a grave countenance, pronounce the onions
to be ciboullettes. If they be small and cylindrical, with hol-
low leaves, he is actually right, and they are luxuriating on the
A. schcenoprasum. This is the extent of the voyageur's knowledge of
onions; and I believe that the intrepid and persevering Sir Alex.
McKenzie merely spoke as a voyager, adopting the phraseology
of his canoe-men when talking of these native species. All dif-
ference or argument about species is summarily settled amongst
voyageurs by the irrefutable conclusion, " lis sont tous des oignons
sauvages.''

The scientific botanists, Richardson, Douglas, Drummond, Tol-
mie, and Gairdner, who traversed the country to the northward,
have never given the slightest hint of the Allium cepa being a
native. Had it been to be met with, it could not possibly have
escaped their observation. It is not a plant of the morass or
inaccessible mountain: it would have been found with its con-
geners on the banks of rivers, or in plains where the soil was rich,
or fertilized to a certain extent by alluvium. Its discovery as an

Geographical Distribution of the Genus Allium. 119

indigenous plant of tbis country would also have been considered
as worthy by these men of signal and particular note. But, as
%r as I know, we have not a word on the subject.

The onion, we are led to understand, has been from remote
ages a famed plant, and a highly prized pot-herb. It was culti
vated and held sacred by the Egyptians. The Roman satirist
■exclaims, " Who knows not the superstitions of the crazy Egyp.
tian, that it is with him an impiety to hurt or bite the leek and
onion. Oh ! holy people, whose gardens give birth to these
deities." An Egyptian would take an oath by garlic or onions
as he would by his gods.

The Greeks must have held all of the garlic tribe in very high
estimation, but in quite a different way from the Egyptians. A
philosophizing genius enabled the Greeks to struggle hard against
absurdities, and take vantage-ground for the freedom of intellect.
They had their Skorodophagi or garlic eaters, their Kronnnuophigi
or onion eaters, and their Prasophagi or leek eaters. We may say,
then, that the refined Greeks had, as respects vegetables, a combi.
nation of Spanish, French, and Welch tastes.

Among the Romans a love for these bulbs also prevailed, and
sometimes to an intense degree, if we put full faith in the expres-
sions made use of respecting them. ' ; Sijoorrum et cepe trucidas"
says the Roman gentleman and poet, whose idea is best explained
perhaps by the translation: "If thou art devouring the leek
and onion. 1 ' And has not the same roguish bon vivant written
a whole ode in execration of garlic, because he hud partaken too
largely of it, as well no doubt as of other good things, at a ban-
quet? The fact appears to be that Horace, finding he had hurt
liis stomach by a surfeit, humourously clokes his failing, and
amuses himself by a philippic against the unlucky garlic, which,
coming uppermost, reminded him of his excess. In all likelihood
it had only been an ingredient of a dish, and had only lent its
attraction to some too luscious dainty. They were accustomed
to pound or bruize the garlic when preparing it for the table :
" Pistitlo fragrantia mollit allia"

The reputation of this genus, being of such preeminence
amongst the nations of antiquity, will, I trust, excuse me for
having thus enlarged upon the subject. It may still interest some
readers to bring together a few opinions regarding the etymology
of the botanical name of the onion. Some give the Celtic word
All, meaning hot or burning, as a derivation for Allium ; but

120 Geographical Distribution of the Genus Allium.

whatever may have been the primary root, the Romans, who were
much better acquainted with the Greeks than with the Celts, must
certainly have taken the word from the Greek, Aglis, which in
the plural, Aglites, was the term used for the root or cloves of
the garlic. We find the g, which was omitted by the Romans,
still retained in its soft form by the Italians in their word for the
same plant, Aglio. Iu French it becomes Ail, in Spanish Ajo,
and in Portuguese Alho. This accordance in name may lead us
to infer that either the Romans themselves introduced the garlic
into their western provinces, or that it had been perhaps taken
there before their conquests by Greek mariners, who would have
the cloves or root on board their vessels, both as an article of
food for themselves, and for traffic with the natives. Garlic was an
indigenous plant probably in Lower Egypt, as well as in the islands
of the Eastern Mediterranean.

Cepa, the specific name of the onion, and by which it was
known separately by the Romans from the Allium or garlic, has-
the appearance of a Greek extraction also; Kephalis being the
term applied to the head of flowers, prevailing in all the plants of
the kind. The Keph becomes Cep from the softening of the con-
souant before e. The modern Italian here also approaches nearer
the Greek than the Latins did, and we have cipollo in Italy at the
present day, instead of cepa. The Celtic cep, meaning a head, may
be the primary root ; and, if we rely on this etymology, the onion
or cepa may be considered to have derived its name, either
from having been looked upon as the principal of its kind, or
from possessing the most perfect capitulum or head of flowers.
Its habitat was probably more extended than that of garlic, pass-
ing perhaps from the Mediterranean islands into northern Greece.
A good European flora would shew if this supposition were correct.

The Gothic and Saxon races do not seem to have followed the
Latins in their names for these vegetables ; but, adopting their
own word, Leek, Look, or Lauch, as a general term, affixed to it
some other word denoting what appeared most characteristic in
the species they wished to particularize. The leek or prason of
the Greeks, the porrum, of the Romans, and poireau of the
French, was familiar to them. Instead, therefore, of introducing
the soft language of the south, they vigorously applied the firm
articulations of their own tongue in combinations, to express new
ideas, or name new objects as they presented themselves. This
rule has not held, howeve in the case of the shallot, which,

Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects. 121

being probably of later introduction to the northern countries of
Europe than others of its genus, and only cultivated in the gardens
of the rich, kept amongst the Germans the southern name given
to it unchanged.

In closing these observations on the onion or garlic genus, and
returning to the point of enquiry first touched upon, I can say
that my own belief is that the onions from the banks of the Temis-
camingue Lake, if really garden onions, must be descendants of
some that have been cultivated on that spot by the Jesuits, or
perhaps some shanty-men or intelligent Indians once local ed there.
In these old Jesuit gardens, flowers of Europe have been found
perfectly naturalized, which must have been first introduced by
the early pioneers of civilization. These floral bequests, after
nearly one hundred years of neglect, have still, by the favor of
nature and advantageous situation, kept their solitary hold?
beautiful mementos of the pursuits and recreations of the most
intelligent of the first enterprising settlers in the land.

ARTICLE VIII. — On the Generation of Sounds by Canadian
Insects. By George Gibb, M. D., M. A., F. G. S., Member
of the Canadian Institute, <fcc.

(Presented to the Natural History Society of Montreal.)
Among the most striking peculiarities associated with the study
of insect life, which very early attracts the attention of the young
entomologist, are the various musical or other sounds and notes
which are emitted by many of the genera among the different fami-
lies of this division of the animal kingdom. In my youthful days
I used to listen with an exciting interest to the tuneful song of
the Tree-hoppers, Cicadce, in the extensive gardens of Mr. James
E. Campbell, my maternal grandfather, situated at the foot of the
Current St. Mary, on the beautiful Island of Montreal. I watched
whence the music proceeded, and stopped not until my curiosity
was ultimately rewarded with the capture of one of these insects,
which have been celebrated from time immemorial, and described
by Virgil as rending the bushes with their song :

" Et cantu querulae rumpent
arbusta cicadse."

The insect sang as it was held between my fingers, and it was
from the possession of this specimen that my taste for collecting
insects at an early period was formed. It was not long subse-

122 Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects.

quently to this that a fine large beetle of a fawnish-drab colour,
the Monohammus confusor * rewarded my efforts, and the utter-
ance of a very delicate, but still quite audible squeak like
that from a mous^, only not so loud, astonished me very much.
This sound continued for hours, whenever the beetle was disturbed,
notwithstanding a pin had been passed through one of the elytrge.
As my collection increased, many other beetles were discovered
to emit similar sounds of varying intensity. But the loudest and
most striking note of this kind given forth by an insect, was from
a very beautiful and rare species of sphinx, the Sesia Pelasgus or
Humble-bee Hawkmoth, and although my collection numbered
but one similar specimen given to me, I retained the one which
vas captured by myself for some time alive to hear its murmurs.

The sounds generated by Canadian insects were never disre-
garded in my entomological rambles, and it is with a view of
drawing the attention of my younger readers to this interesting
subject, that I venture to put together a few remarks, which shall
embody a brief description of the sounds, and an enumeration of
the principal insects which produce them. And here I must be
excused for a moment, if I refer back to that period of youth,
when all is sweet and joyous, when neither thought, nor care
troubles the mind, and nought interests for the time but the ardent
pursuit after the studies of nature. It is with feelings of ever
cherished recollection that my mind dwells upon my rambles and
their connecting incidents over the various parts of my native
island, which, perhaps, are agreeably forced upon one during a
sojourn in another and a distant land. My insect collecting days
are not likely to be resumed in this country, and with a view t<,
preserve the records of my early labours, the great bulk of my
collection is now deposited in the Museum of the Literary and
Philosophical Society of St. Andrew's, in Fifeshire, the country
from whence my paternal ancestors came.

Of the Canadian insects which emit sounds, unquestionably the
most remarkable is the Cicada or Tree-hopper, which sings loudly
during the hot months of summer, and in some localities, espe-
cially in large gardens, and groves of bushes, exists in great num-
bers. Its shrill chirping may be heard during the greater part of
the day, when the sun is shining, and the insect may be found
sitting on the leaves or small branches of trees, or occasionally
on the fences, in all of which situations I have captured them.

* Common in August about the Wood-yards of the city. — Eds.

Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects. 123

Tree-hopper. * Drums of Tree-hopper.

(Cicada canicularis.) a a the outer drums ; b the muscular

Natural size. strings ; c c the inner drums.

This insect is not a grass-hopper, as its name is erroneously trans-
lated from the writings of Pliny and others, but belongs to the first
family of the Homopterous Hemiptera. It has a pair of transpar-
ent wings and wing covers, and a shining black body ; the largest
Montreal specimens measure 3 inches and 3 lines with extended
wings, and the body 9 lines and-a-half. Their general expansion
is from 1\ to 3^ inches, and the veins of the wings are of a green
and orange colour. They are not found in such large numbers
in Canada as in the United States, where it is said such immense
numbers are sometimes congregated, as to " bend and even break
down the limbs of trees by their weight, and the woods resound
with the din of their discordant drums from morn to eve." On
the most careful comparison between the Canadian and European
species of this insect, I find there is not the slightest appreciable
difference in the formation of the musical instrument or particular
organ, which is present in the males only on each side of the
base of the abdomen, by means of which is produced a sort of
monotonous and noisy music, which has led to their being termed
by many authors " chanteuses " or singers.

It consists of 2 pairs of large plates fixed to the trunk between

* Several species of Cicada inhabit the United States and Canada.
The Larvae live under ground on the roots of trees to which they are
occasionally injurious. Dr. Harris in his treatise " On Insects injurious
to Vegetation," gives an interesting history of the above and several
other species. — Eds.

124 Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects.

the abdomen and hind legs, these form a large exterior moveable
cartilaginous curtain or membrane, which, when raised, exposes
a cavity, part of which seems to extend into the abdomen, and
part to be covered with a second thin and pellucid membrane,
much more delicate than the exterior one, and tensely stretched,
plicated, and iridescent. In the middle there is a horny plate
running horizontally across the bottom. It is this iridescent
membrane which is acted -«pon internally by a bundle of muscular
strings which throw it into rapid vibration, and thus gives rise to
the sound. These minuie muscular strings are attached by one
extremity to another membrane in the interior, which is presumed
to be the true drum, from the fact, that when Reaumur*, who is
describing the mechanism of the sound produced, compares it to
that issuing through an opening like that of the larynx of qua-
drupeds, or the sound-hole of a violin.

This most curious apparatus has attracted the attention of many
of the most celebrated physiologists, and a desire is manifested on
the part of some of them to know whether any actual difference
exists in its construction in Cicadce, existing in other parts of the
world besides Europe. As Greece and Italy are the two countries
in which it abounds, the familiarity with its history evinced by
Anacreon, Aristotle, Pliny, Virgil, and some other ancient authors
is fully explained. There can be no doubt that Aristotle refers to
the Cicada, when he speaks of the voices of insects, especially of
" a shrill, long-drawn note, like the grass-hopper." Pliny speaks
of the Cicada, but there is no doubt that he, as well as Aristotle has
confounded grass and tree-hoppers together.

Whether the sound is pleasing to the ear is a question ; assur-
edly when it proceeds from a number, its shrillness and frequent
repetition becomes fatiguing. I cannot say that it was displeasing
to myself, perhaps because my curiosity was amply repaid by its
capture and examination of the insect, and because I won-
dered, in common with others, that such a shrill and loud
sound should proceed from such a small creature : its music
being more audible than that of many birds. In the forests
of South America at certain periods of the day nothing is
heard but a loud and uninterrupted rustling or humming
noise, produced by various insects, in which the notes of the
Cicada3 predominate. Kirby and Spence mention on the autho-

* See Cuvier's Animal Kingdom 1849, page 569 for a more minute and
strictly anatomical account.

Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects. 125

rity of Captain Hancock, that the Brazilian Cicadas, sing so loud
as to be heard at the distance of a mile, which is as if a man of
ordinary stature possessed a voice that could be heard all over the
world. That its voice is very much louder than our Canadian
species, may very well be understood, when it is remembered that
the Brazilian Cicada is a much larger species, and I am informed
that its drum is similar to the one which has been described.
The use of the music, as in crickets, and other insects, is for the
the purpose of attracting the female sex, and it conclusively shows
that if the precise organ of hearing has not been definitely recog-
nized in them, it at any rate is most assuredly not absent. New-
man has observed, "to what purpose would the merry cricket sing
his evening song, if there w T ere none of his kind to listen to and
admire it ?"

Any one who has walked across a Canadian meadow or pasture
land, in the summer time, or over a hay field, particularly after
the hay has been cut and removed, must have observed the count-
less numbers of grass-hoppers, locusts, crickets, and other insects,
which hop across his path, and produce with their united voices
a chirping noise not easily forgotten. Some of the locusts pos-
sess yellow wings with a black border, and as they fly, produce a
sort of loud snapping noise, which is very peculiar.* This is pro-
duced by the attrition of the anterior pairs of wings against each
other, one of the nervures being furnished with a rough file-like
edge, which is made to pass over the nervures of the opposite
wing ; and the sound is augmented by the resonance of a certain
part of the wing, that is surrounded by peculiarly strong nervures,
between which the thin membrane is tightly stretched, so that it
acts as a tympanum or drum. In other species of Canadian lo-
custs there exists on each side of the body near the base of the
abdomen, a large cavity, closed on the inside by a very thin pelli-
cle, which has some influence in the production of chirping, or
possibly as has been supposed in flight. It is in this respect an-
alogous to the tree-hoppers, and may be compared to a kind of
tambour or drum. The opening left by the pellicle, which answers
the purpose of a lid, is crescentic in shape, and at the bottom of
the cavity may be seen a white membrane shining like a mirror

* This insect is called the Rattling Locust JEdipoda sulphured, and
possesses dusky elytrae. I have noticed the wing3 vary in colour, but the
yellow are the commonest with a black border.

126 Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects.

and tensely stretched. The apparatus as described by I)e Geer,
may be seen in the second volume of the Pictorial Museum of
Animated Natnre, page 340. Fig. 3389.

Many varieties of the grass-hopper and locust may be captured
in the gardens and fields, and of a considerable size ; some of them
are destitute of wings, but all are capable of making their own
peculiar noises. In a case of South American insects once in my
possession there is an immense brown bodied locust, whose ex-
tended wings measure 7 inches, the length of the body being 4
inches. It is an example of Acrydium Latreillei, the upper wings
are green and the lower deep red, bordered with brown, the legs
green.*

The noise of the flight of an immense swarm of these locusts in
South America has been compared by Mr. Darwin to a strong
breeze passing through the rigging of a ship. The noise occa-
sioned by whole armies of locusts, by the mere act of mastication
alone, when incalculable millions of powerful jaws are in action at
the same time, has been likened to the crackling of a flame of fire
driven before the wind.

The Canadian student will be well repaid, by collecting all
the varieties of the locusts and grass-hoppers, which abound on
the Island of Montreal.

As belonging to the same family as the locusts and grass hop-
pers, may be mentioned the Canadian crickets, the males of which
call their females by making a chirping noise, produced as in many
of the grass-hoppers by rubbing the inner part of the wing-covers
like a talc-like mirror, against each other with rapidity, and
sometimes by a similar alternate motion of the hind thighs against
the wings and wing covers, the thighs acting as part of the bow
of a violin. The last I suspect is the common practice with crick-
ets, whose song is heard with so much regularity in the night
time. The number of chirps uttered I have counted with my
watch, and find it to be 76 per minute, the standard of the healthy
pulse, but if any noise be made, the chirps increase to 100, very
seldom more. The field cricket Gryllus compestris, is of a black
colour and may be heard in the fields at all periods of the day,
where they may be found of all sizes hopping about. The song
of the house cricket, 67. doniesticus, is to be heard in every well

* This magnificent case, containing about 250 specimens of exotic and
other insects, many of great rarity and beauty, I presented to the Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society of St. Andrew's.

Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects. 127

regulated Canadian hearth in the evening or twilight, and although
it is said not to be so soft as the song of the mole cricket, which I
have never met with in Canada, it is by no means disagreeable,
although I must confess it is sometimes rather harsh Opinion
varies on the " vulgarly called song of these animals/' for I find
Milne Edwards, of whom I had expected better things, calls it a
sharp and disagreeable sound, which explains the origin of their
vulgar name of cri-cri. The author of the " Backwoods of Ca-
nada," is also evidently no admirer of the Gryllus, for she says —
" The very crickets, that used to distract us with their chirping
from morning till night, have forsaken their old haunts." But this
is excusable, for a sad inroad was made by these iusects into the fair
author's clothes and woollens. To study the habits and song of the
Canadian crickeu, a good plan would be to keep a number in
cages, as practised by the Spanish peasantry, who delight in its
querulous chirping.* Among many people the chirp of the do-
mestic cricket is considered a good omen, and its absence from a
French Canadian hearth produces some anxiety. Although not
influenced by anything of this kind, I do entertain a partiality for
the cricket's chirp, which I have been accustomed to hear with
satisfaction from childhood.

All the known species of the Mantis are proper to America,
but by the species of Phasma f which I have captured on the slopes
and base of the Montreal mountain, I have not noticed that any
sound was produced, notwithstanding that some species, as the
Praying Mantis, are said " to carol forth a fine canticle."

I have observed that many beetles, particularly the large drab
with long antennas (Monohammus), emitted a distinct but slight
sharp sound, which is attributed to the friction of the peduncle
of the base of the abdomen against the inner recess of the
thorax, when they alternately enter and withdraw it. The
rubbing of different parts of their dense integument against each
other, is, however, the general explanation of these sounds in
beetles. This may be the case in many of them, but I think there
are, in some, true respiratory sounds, that is to say, while at rest
sounds are emitted from some of the spiracles which answer the

* My readers will doubless remember the quarrel between two boys
respecting a cage full of crickets, which gave Don Quixote so much
annoyance, but which was ended by the worthy squire making a purchase
of the chirping brood for four farthings.

(f Spectrum femoratum ? — Eds.)

128 Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects.

purpose of the larynx in higher animals, when the insect is mo-
tionless. In the cock chafer, which soon makes its presence
known in the evening, by the noise it makes in flying about a
room, the sounds are likely due to currents of air directed to some
of the spiracles which exist at the interspace between every two
segments of its body, as in common with the other coleoptera.

Lest it might be thought that I had overlooked the sound pro-
duced by the Anobium, a small beetle that burrows in old timber,
I will merely give it the passing notice, that its tick, which has
procured for it the name of the death-watch, is totally unconnected
with the respiratory system, and is produced by rapping its head
against the wood work, and if the signal be answered, it is con-
tinually repeated. Its noise resembles a moderate tap with the
nail upon the table, and this imitation will be answered by the in-
sect, as if the real sound of its own kind. When I first heard the
death-watch, 1 was told it was a very bad sign, and that it por-
tended the dissolution of some relative ! The superstitious notions
which prevail regarding this harmless beetle, are preposterous, but
at the same time have done much mischief. The reader (especi-
ally the superstitious one) is referred to the description of the
death-watch in Maucder's Treasury of Natural History.

Among the Lepidoptera — the butterflies of which those common
to Canada have been so ably illustrated in the pages of this Journal,
I have heard a stridulous sound emitted by many species of the
sphinx or hawkmoth tribe, captured generally in the evening twi-
light. This sound is something like the squeaking of a mouse or
a bat, and was strikingly pronounced in a beautiful and rare spe-
cimen of humble-bee hawkmoth, the Sesia Pelasgus with reddish
brown wings and hyaline disks, taken in the gardens of Mr. James
E. Campbell, at the foot of the Current St. Mary, This squeaking
noise continued as long as the creature remained alive, and was
much louder than in any other of the numerous sphinges it was
my good fortune to capture. It is a well-known fact that when
the death's head sphinx, Sphinx Atropos* common to England, is
in the least irritated or disturbed, it emits a similar sound, and it
is related that from this circumstance, together with the presence
of a very large patch, exactly resembling the usual figure of a
skull or death's head on the top of the thorax, it is held in much

* A very perfect specimen is in the Museum of the Natural History
Society, presented by the writer.

Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects. 129

dread by the Vulgar in several parts of Europe, its appearance be-
ing regarded an ill omen, or harbinger of approaching fate.
With the Death's-head moth, this sound is given out when confined
or taken into the hand, and is likened to the cry of a mouse, but
is said to be more plaintive and even lamentive.

The humming noise of many, if not of most of the Canadian
sphinges, some good specimens of which were in my collection, is
distinctly heard during their rapid flight, but it is again different
from the stridulous and plaintive note emitted by them when sta-
tionary. The mode in which this sound is produced has not as
yet been correctly ascertained. It has been supposed by Reaumur
to be caused by rubbing the palpi against each other, and by
Lorey to be owing to the rapid escape of the air from the two
ventral cavities. On carefully considering the matter, there cannot
be any doubt that the sound is connected with the respiratory
organs, but in what manner it is produced, will probably never be
ascertained. I have no doubt if attention is paid to this point,
that one or more of the Canadian species may be found 'to emit
the sound before quitting their pupa-case, as Mr. Ha udon found
with the Death's-head moth.

Although it is not always easy to detect the inode of produetio:>
of the sounds generated by different trite,, we have no difficulty
in rightly attributing the buzzing and humming noises beard
during the flight of the dipterous and hymenopterous insects, to
the forcible expulsion of the air -as it streams through the respira-
tory spiracles. The experiments of Burmeister on bees and flies
show that the noises are not so much produced by the simple
motion of the wings, to which it is commonly attributed, as by
the vibrations of a little membranous plate, situated in each of the
posterior spiracles of the thorax ; for if the apertures of these be
stopped, no sound is heard, even though the wings remain in
movement. These are the true vocal organs, although the full-
toned buzz is increased by the action of the wings ; yet many of
the species, as the wasp-fly for instance will buzz when at rest.

The buzzing of the gad-fly Tabanus is familiar to horses and
cows'-, which are sometimes covered with blood from its attacks.
The shrill trumpet of the musquito gives us warning of the prox-
imity of that insect, which pursues us in many parts of Canada,
thirsting for our blood. The buzzing of numerous flies, including

* The horse gad-fly Gastrus equi, whilst that affecting sheep is called
Oestrus ovis, or the sheep gad-fly.

Canadian Nat. 4 Vol. IV. No. 2.

130 Generation of Sounds by Canadian Insects.

countless blue-bottles; the bumming of bees, the shrill buzzing of
wasps, and the creaking sound of the sawyers, are, I presume too
well known to need description. The last of these is the Tenthredo
cerasi so destructive to many of the fruit trees of North America^
and the sound produced by its sawing efforts is entirely mechani-
cal. So also is that of the timber-louse, Atropos pulsatorius,
which in this respect resembles the death-watch, but belongs to the
Neuroptern, and reminds me that the same family includes the
celebrated Termes or White ants. Ants belonging to the
Hymenoptera are well known as domestic pests, from their
ravages some times in the well-stored cupboard ; and when
a swarm of them is dispersed, the only sound emitted for so un-
ceremoniously driving them away, is a distinct and audible kind
of a hiss.

I trust this slight sketch of the generation of sounds of in-
sects, heard for the most part on the Island of Montreal, may
prove not only of interest, but be the means of drawing attention
to the subject. Many of them are not only exceedingly shrill, but
can be heard at a considerable distance, and with every propriety
the organs producing them in nearly all the insects which have
been noticed, may be considered as the analogues of the larynx
and trachas in the higher animals. I am of course at issue with,
the immortal Cuvier on this point, as he has remarked that the
various noises made by insects are in reality not the voice ; be-
cause, he says, the air does not pass through a larynx. If the
numerous spiracles are for the purposes of respiration, a fact
indisputably established, and that the air is known to rush
in and out of some of them, then they are the analogues of the
larynx, and simulate its functions, as much so, as the circulation
in insects is the counter-part of the same function in the vertebrata.
And I will close with the question of Pliny on this subject, who
asks — " And where too, has nature implanted that sharp, shrill
voice of the creature, so utterly disproportioned to the size of
its body ? " to which I reply, that in the majority of insects, it is
in the spiracles, or representatives of the larynx in higher animal
life.

London, September, 1858.

New Genera and Species of Brachiopoda. 1$1

ARTICLE IX. — On some new Genera and Species of Brachi-
opoda, from the Silurian and Devonian Rocks of Canada.
By E. Billings, F.G.S. Read before the Natural History
Society of Montreal, 28th March, 1859.

{From the Report of the Geological Survey for 1858.)
Genus Centronella, Billings.
Generic Characters. — Shells, having the general form of Tere-
hratula. Dorsal valve, with a loop consisting of two delicate
riband-like lamellae, which extend about one-half the leno-th.
These lamellae at first curve gently outwards, and then approach
each other gradually, until at their lower extremities they meet
at an acute angle ; then becoming united they are reflected back-
wards towards the beak in what appears to be a thin flat vertical
plate. Near their origin each bears upon the ventral side a single
triangular crural process. Name from the , Greek, Kentron, a
spur. This genus is intermediate between Terebratula «#nd
Waldheimia. In the former the loop is short, not exceeding
greatly one-third the length of the shell and not reflected. In the
latter it extends nearly to the front and is reflected but the
laminae are not united until after they are folded back.

The following figures will explain the difference more clearly :

I

Figs.

h

2,

3.

it

4.

a

5.

it

6.

ti

7.

6 7

Ventral, side, and dorsal views of Centronella glans-

fagea.
Interior of dorsal valve, shewing the loop.
Longitudinal section, shewing the position of the loop

in the interior.
Interior of dorsal valve of Terebratula. I, the loop.
Interior of Waldheimia. Z, the loop.

132 New Genera and Species of Brachiopoda.

Centroxella glaxs-fagea, (Hall, Species.)

Rhynchonella glansfagea, Hall. Report of the Regents of the

University of the State of New York, 1857. Page 125.

Description. — Shell, small, smooth, broad oval or rather sub-
rhomboidal, greatest width near the centre of the length of the
dorsal valve, from which point the sides slope in nearly straight
lines to the beak where they meet at an angle of about eighty-
five degrees ; front rounded or sometimes either a little pointed
or slightly sinuated. Ventral valve the larger, its outline forming
a nearly regular arch from the beak to the front margin, strongly
and broadly subcarinate along the centre, beak very prominent
and projecting over the dorsal valve at a right angle but not
much incurved at the point ; an open foramen beneath it. Dor-
sal valve somewhat flat, a wide shallow concavity extending from
near the beak to the front where it gently elevates the margin
of the ventral valve. Length from two to four lines, width about
the same.

This little species is somewhat variable in form, the length being
sometimes greater than the width, and often a little less. The
broad shallow mesial depression of the dorsal valve sometimes
extends nearly to the beak, and in other specimens dies out at
two thirds the length. The detached dorsal valves also exhibit
two very thick and strong supports for the loop and between them
a deep fissure opm to the beak.

Locality and formation. — Oriskany Sandstone, near Cayuga, C.
TV". Corniferous limestone at Rama's farm, near Port Colborne ;
abundant. In the State of New York it occurs in the Scho-
harie Grit.

Genus Stricklaxdia, Billings.

Generic Characters. — Shell, usually large, elongate oval, trans-
versely-oval, or circular, sometimes compressed; valves nearly
equal ; a short mesial septum in the interior of the ventral valve
supporting a small triangular chamber beneath the beak as in
Pentamerus ; in the dorsal valve no longitudinal septa spires or
loop, the whole of the internal solid organs consisting of two
very short or rudimentary dental plates, which in some species
bear prolonged calcified processes for the support of the cirrated
arms. In all the species the ventral valve has an area more or
less developed.

This group of shells, although closely related to Penta-

New Genera and Species of Brachiopoda. 133

merits, differs from that genus in the following particulars : —
1st. In Pentamerus the form is globular and the ventral valve is
much the largest. In Stricklandia the valves are nearly equal
and never globose. 2nd. In Pentamerus the dorsal valve has
two or three longitudinal septa, which in some species sustain a
small triangular chamber. In Stricklandia these characters are
entirely absent It might be thought that the difference between
the short or rudimentary dental plates of Stricklandia and the
elongated mesial septa of the dorsal valve of Pentamerus is not
of sufficient importance to constitute a generic distinction, because
it is only a difference in the extent to which identical parts are
developed, the dental plates of the former genus being a rudi-
mentary state of the septa of the latter. "When, however,
we examine any group of closely allied genera we find that
all the grounds for separation consist in the various modifica-
tions of the same set of organs. Were it not so then there
would be no such thing as homologous parts. The difference in
the degree of the developement of an organ is not always a good
character, but when it is carried to such an extent that the whole
form of the animal is affected in a particular manner, manifested
in a number of species then it becomes of generic value. If we
take the several species of Stricklandia and compare them with
an equal number of species of Pentamerus, such for instance as
P. Knightii, P. galeatus, P. Sieberi, P. acutolobates, P. caduceus,
&c, the difference in the external form of the two groups is so
remarkable that we would be almost warranted in separating
them into two genera upon this ground alone ; but when to the dis-
similarity in the general form we add the difference in the inter-
nal structure then there can be little doubt as to the correctness
of the separation.

This genus includes three English species which have been
long known under the names of Pentamerus lens, P. liratus, and
P. Icevis. All these, and the three Canadian species, abound in
rocks of the a^e of the Middle Silurian, such as the Landoverv
rocks of Sir R. Murchison, and the Clinton and Niagara groups
of the New York geologists. No species have as yet been found
either above or below the Middle Silurian. On the other hand,
the genus Pentamerus occurs more or less frequently in all for-
mations from the Black River limestone* to the Devonian inclu-
sive.

* I have ascertained that Atrypa hemiplicata (Hall) is a true Penta-
merus.

134 New Genera and Species of Brachiopoda.

The following figures exhibit the difference in form between
Stricklandia and Pentamerus : —

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 8. Stricklandia lens, dorsal view.
" 9. do. do., side view.

" 10. Pentamerus Knightii, side view.

I am not certain whether Fig. 9 is the true S. lens or a variety.
It is more pointed in front than any of the English specimens
that I have seen.

Stricklandia, Gasp£ensis, Billings.

Description. — Shell, large, oval ; length to breadth about as
five is to four ; valves about equally convex. The ventral valve
has a shallow mesial depression which commencing at the beak
in a point gradually enlarges to the front margin, more than half
of which is affected by it ; the dorsal valve has a corresponding
mesial elevation, on each side of which there is sinus of just
sufficient strength to induce the idea of a trilobed surface. The
two valves are nearly equal, the ventral being the longest by
about one line in a specimen five inches in length. The beak of
the ventral valve is closely incurved over that of the dorsal and
on each side of it there is a short area. The whole surface
is covered with strong close rounded longitudinal ribs with rather
sharp furrows between. These ribs are on an average one line
wide at the front margin.

This species, differs from all the others in its form, which is
a nearly perfect ellipse, both ends being about equally rounded
and the greatest width being in the centre of the length. The
ribs are also more distinctly defined and proportionally more
numerous than these of any other species.

The average length is four inches ; width three inches and a
half ; depth of both valves two inches and a half.

New Genera and Species of Brachiopoda. 135

Locality and formation. — L'anse a La Vielle. Gaspe Upper
Silurian.

Stricklandia Canadensis, Billings.

Description. — Shell very large, sub -circular, transversely broad,
sub-oval, often much expanded, compressed, surface covered with
rather obscure radiating ribs. The form is somewhat variable.
Usually the hinge line is straight and two thirds the greatest width
of the shell, the cardinal angles rounded, sides gently convex and
the front slightly pointed ; the ventral valve with a mesial sinus
commencing at the beak and gradually enlarging to the front;
the dorsal valve with a corresponding mesial fold ; both valves
about equally compressed convex; radiating ribs obscure one line
in width at the front. Average width of adult specimens five
inches, length the same or a little less, depth of both valves one
inch and a half.

The proportioned length and width varies. In some specimens
the sides are so gently curved as to become sub-parallel and in
such instances the length is a little greater than the width, but in
general the latter dimension is the greatest.

This species closely resembles S. liratus, and may perhaps be
considered a variety thereof, but at present on account of its great
size, I think it a distinct species.

Locality and formation. — In great numbers at Mr. Goode-
now's Quarry, near Thorold, C.W., in the Clinton limestone.

(Var.) Stricklandia brevis, Billings.

Description. — Transversely oval, rather convex, hinge line a
little more than half the width of the shell cardinal angles, sides
and front rounded ; surface covered with obscure rounded radiat-
ing ribs from half a line to one line in width. Mesial fold and
sinus obscure width from two inches to two inches and a half;
length from one inch and three fourths to two inches.

This form is closely allied to S. Canadensis but is proportionally
broader and more convex. The fossil figured in the Palaeonto-
logy of New York, vol. 2, p. 22, fig. 3, under the name of Spirifer
— appears to be the same.

Locality and formation. — South West Point, Anticosti, Middle
Silurian.

136 Variable Illuminating Power of Coal Gas.

ARTICLE X. — On the Variable Illuminating Power of Coal
Gas; by William E ; A. Aikin, Prof. Chem., &c, Univer-
sity of Maryland.*

(Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
at the Baltimore Meeting, May, 1858.)

In common with a large number of our citizens, my attention
was directed some short time since, to a somewhat sudden, inex-
plicable and enormous increase in the amount of our quarterly
bills for gas consumed ; an increase equal at times to an advance
of a hundred per cent over the corresponding quarter of the pre-
ceding year. As it would have been absurd to suppose a simul-
taneous derangement of all the meters over an extensive district
it was obvious that the difficulty could not lie in any error in the
registry of the gas, but in its illuminating power, necessarily re-
quiring the consumption of a greater bulk of gas to produce a
given quantity of light. Feeling curious to know how this
difference could have occurred, I set myself to work to ascertain,
if possible, what causes could be acting to diminish the illuminat-
ing power of the gas.

It has long been known that the quality of the gas produced
from the fat coals is very materially influenced by the circum-
stances of the decomposition. In the elaborate experiments made
some years ago, on a most extended scale by ileclley, the British
Engineer, as detailed in his report to a committee of the House of
Commons, we find this subject most satisfactorily discussed.
Below a cherry red heat the products obtained by heating coal in
close vessels contains hardly any illuminating material. At that
temperature it is furnished most freely, but after having been
formed is liable to decomposition, involving a loss of carbon by
contact with any highly heated surface in passing through the
apparatus. Such decarbonization increasing with the degree of
heat, with the extension of the red hot surface, and with the time
of contact. Again, the duration of heat is most important, the
best gas coming over during the first hour, the quality rapidly
deteriorating, until at the expiration of four hours the product is
worth very little to the consumer, and after five hours may be
considered as worthless. But the bulk of such worthless gas that
can still be obtained by pushing the process to completion is very
considerable, equal sometimes to § of all that passes over.

* Cited from Silliman's Journal.

Variable Illuminating Power of Coal Gas. 137

How far any neglect in the observance of the precautions re-
quired to produce a proper illuminating gas, may explain the
result the public have no means of knowing. All that we know
is that the manufacturers furnish an article which they say is the
right article and prepared in the right way, and possessing an
illuminating power varying from 14 to 17 candles. That is, their
engineer reports, that on trial with a photometer, at stated times,
the gas burning from a jet, consuming five cubic feet per hour,
gives ?n amount of light equal in the average to that of 15 patent
candles six to the pound. The patent candle being ostensibly a
mixture of spermaceti and wax. Assuming as true all that is
claimed by the manufacturers, it can still be shown that the gas
even if properly made and correctly tested may be and is fur-
nished to the consumer in a condition of greatly diminished illu-
minating power, compelling the consumption of a greater bulk to
obtain the required light and consequently swelling the record of
the meter and the sum total of the quarterly bills. In my trials to
determine the specific gravity of our gas by weighing a globe
previously exhausted and then filled with it, I obtained a result
ranging from 5*70 to 580 somewhat below that giveu as charac-
terizing good gas. But in reality I attach very little importance
to this result since the mere specific gravity of such a complex
mixture as coal gas can hardly be relied upon to determine its
commercial value.

Although good gas certainly has a higher specific gravity than
poor, yet the difference could not be taken to represent the true
difference in value since the principal components of the mixture
hydrogen, carbonic oxyd, light carburetted hydrogen, defiant gas
and other still heavier hydrocarbons having specific gravities,
widely different, might vary somewhat in their relative proportions
sufficient to affect the illuminating power, without at the same
time and to the same extent affecting the specific gravity. The
action of chlorine in removing the olefiant gas and other more
dense hydrocarbons, the principal light giving materials of the
coal gas, showed a per centage of these substances never exceed-
ing 10 per cent. But not having time at the moment to guard
against all sources of error in the process, laid it aside. My atten-
tion was principally directed to the simple inquiry to what extent
will the illuminating power of the gas be impaired by keeping it
in contact with water for noted periods. That it does deteriorate
when thus kept, or when kept in contact with oil or even close
vessels has been long known.

1 38 Variable Illuminating' Power of Coal Gas.

Dr. Ure tells us that gas from oil when first made and with a
specific gravity of 1*054 will give the light of one candle when
burned from jets consuming 200 cubic inches per hour. But keep
the gas three weeks and then to get the same light from the
same burner you must supply 600 cubic inches per hour. lie
adds that with coal gas the deterioration appears to be more rapid.
For if such gas when first made will give the light of one candle by
the consumption of 400 cubic inches per hour, when kept four
days will require the consumption of 460 cubic inches per hour
to give the same light. My first attempt to obtain some definite
results began on the evening of the 8th ultimo, when I filled a
a large receiver from the street main and placed it on the shelf
of the pneumatic trough, the next evening I filled a second one
and put it alongside of the first, the following evening I filled a
third receiver, and still the following evening, the 11th inst., I
filled a fourth receiver. On the evening of the 12th I was thus
provided with four jars of gas, one of which had been standing
24 hours or one day over the pneumatie trough, this I will call
No. 1 ; another, No. 2, had been standing two days ; No 3 had
been standing three days, and No. 4 had been four days in con-
tact with the water. The diminution in volume by such exposure
was indicated by a receiver graduated to cubic inches into which
I introduced 130 cubic inches of gas on the evening of the 8th;
on the evening of the 12th this had lost about 10.^ cubic inches,
indicating a loss of about 8 per cent, of the original bulk.

The effect produced on the illuminating power of the gas by
the loss of volume became at once apparent as I proceeded to
contrast the value of the flames furnished by the contents of the
several receivers, 1, 2, 3, and 4. I used for this purpose the or-
dinary photometer arrangement, taking the relative intensity of
the shadows produced, as a measure of the relative intensity of
light. The candle employed for the comparison was the patent
candle already referred to, and the burner was the kind known as
fish tail burner, which had been previously guaged, and known
to consume a trifle more than 5 cubic feet per hour with the
average maximum pressure of the gas works. I need hardly add
that the burner was the same in all the trials, and occupied
exactly the same position. The burner and the screen on which
the shadows fell were not moved at all during the experiments.
The only adjustment wanted was* to bring the candle nearer to or
father from the screen, and by beginning with the most luminous

Variable Illuminating- Power of Coal Gas. 139

gas the adjustment became simply a gradual withdrawal of the
candle.

The capped receiver from which the gas was passed floated
freely in a large glass jar, supported in an erect position by the
perpendicular sides of the jar, its own weight, with all attach-
ments, making a difference of level between the water around it
and that within equal to 3£ inches, a little exceeding the ordinary
evening pressure in the gas pipes. This difference of level, and
consequently the pressure on the escaping gas, was kept uniform
by the spontaneous sinking of the receiver as the gas was con-
sumed, a flexible tube communicating between the stop of the
receiver and the gas burner. This arrangement gave me a steady,
equable flame, which continued perfectly uniform long enough
to enable me, after a few trials, to note, very exactly, its true
value. The results as first obtaiued were too startling to be at
once believed, but subsequent repeated trials satisfied me that
they were very close approximation to the truth. The first
trial was with the gas from the street main, which I found equal
to 10*71 candles. The same gas, transferred from the pipe to
the capped receiver, and burned immediately, gave exactly the
same power, 10*71 candles. Gas No. 1 was next used, and found
equal to only 3-50 candles; Gas No. 2. after standing two days,
gave the light of 3*20 candles; Gas No. 3, three days old, was
equal to 1*90 candles; and Gas No. 4, four days old, gave the
light of l'Yo candles — these quantities representing the average
of repeated trials.

It thus appears that the illuminating material of our coal gas
is so rapidly abstracted by suffering it to remain in contact with
water, that the same volume *of gas which to-day will give me the
light of nearly 11 candles, by standing until to-morrow will give
the light of only 3^ candles, and if left standing four days will
give the light of only 1| candles, while the only means left to the
consumer to get the light he requires from this deteriorated gas
is to burn more of it, as we have all been doing through the past
winter. If we now take into account the well known fact that
gas of less illuminating power has less density, and that gas of less
density passes more rapidly through a given aperture than gas of
greater density we have another cause operating to increase the
consumption. In Hedley's experiments the Argand burner which
gave the light of 25 candles when supplied with 3 cubic feet per
hour of gas from Welsh cannel coal, with a specific gravity of

140 Variable Illuminating Poiver of Coal Gas.

737, required no less than 7^ cubic feet per hour to give the same
light, from the same burner, when the gas was made from the
Newcastle coal and had a specific gravity of only 475.

Again, as we diminish the illuminating power of the gas we
increase its heating power, and this necessarily brings with a
higher temperature given to the burners, a higher temperature
given to the gas passing through them, and again an increased
rapidity in the flow. It is thus manifested that the public
placed in a peculiarly unfortunate position, since all the mistakes
that are likely to occur in the process of manufacture are mistakes
that must inevitably increase the bills of the consumer and the
profits of the manufacturer. If the workman fails to raise the
heat with proper rapidity, if he overlooks a retort and allows the
heat to continue a little too long, if towards the close he allows
the heat to rise a little too high, the result is inevitable, the product
is deficient in illuminating power. Or if on any one day a little
more gas is produced than is legitimately required, the surplus
remains in the gasometer to vitiate the supply of to-morrow\ To
what extent this vitiating action operates may be inferred from
the fact that I have never been able to obtain from the gas of our
pipes an illuminating power equal to the minimum of that reported
by the engineer of the gas company. In my trials the power has
varied from that of 13 candles down as low as that of 9 candles,
instead of ranging from 14 to 17 candles.

This difference is perfectly intelligible if w r e assume the last
quantities to represent the value of the gas w r hen first made, and
my results to represent its value as delivered to the consumer.

In conclusion I would merely add that the difficulty suggests
its own remedy. And that would be to have a standard of qua-
lity established by the proper authorities, taking the illuminating
power as the basis of the calculation, and then to have the require-
ments of such standard insured by a nightly examination, if
necessary on the part of some one entirely disconnected with the
manufacture. In other words the photometer can be made as
available and as valuable to the consumer of gas as the hydrometer
is to the spirit merchant; as he distinguishes with his instrument
in any mixture, between the spirit he wishes to buy and the water
he is unwilling to pay for, so the consumer of gas can distinguish
with the photometer between the true illuminating material and
the worthless heat producing gases, hydrogen and lihtg curburet-
ted hydrogen, that make up the bulk the ordinary coal gas.

Natural History Society of Montreal. 141

MISCELLANEOUS.

Inauguration of the New Buildings of the Natural History So-
ciety, Cathcart Street, Montreal.

The erection of New Buildings for the purposes of the Natural
History Society, has long been an object of earnest desire among
its members and friends. For two years efforts have been made
to dispose of their old premises, which although valuable as pro-
perty, were yet in many respects very inconvenient. Not, how-
ever, till last year was this found to be possible. An offer then
presented itself which was considered suitable, and a sale was ac-
cordingly effected. A site having been granted to the Society on
favourable termsby the McGill College, steps were immediately taken
by the Council to procure plans and estimates for a new erection.
This was done without delay Our funds not permitting us to indulge
in external architectural decoration, a plain substantial brick edi-
fice was thought in the meantime sufficient. Every attention was,
however, given that the interior arrangements should be in every
way suitable as regards light, space, and access for our Natural
History collection and our Annual Lectures. These objects have
been secured in the most satisfactory manner, and it is now
hoped that this venerable and valuable Society will meet with
that encouragement from the citizens of Montreal which it may
justly claim at their hands. There was a large attendance of
ladies and gentlemen at the opening soiree. The liveliest interest
was manifested by all present in the Society's valuable collection,
and the utmost satisfaction expressed at the internal arrangements
of the building. It is to be hoped that the attention of our
wealthy and liberal-minded citizens will now be directed to the
improvement and enlargement of this Society's collection. The
Library, although containing many valuable volumes, the gener-
ous donations of former patrons, yet stands greatly in need of
being replenished with works of scientific value published within
the last ten years. Gentlemen desirous of promoting the interests
of science in this province and city, would therefore materially do
so by contributing to the increase and efficiency of our collection
of scientific books.

The inauguration passed oft* most pleasantly. The presence of
that distinguished veteran, General Sir William Eyre, and his lady,
added much to the interest of the proceedings. Mrs. Bell, with
several amateurs under the guidance of Prof. Howe, enlivened the
evening with beautiful music. We were glad to see again amongst

142 Natural History Society of Montreal,

■

us our distinguished scientific guest, Mr. Hall of x\lbany. His
speech will be read with much pleasure and interest. Our excel-
lent President, Principal Dawson, conducted the business of the
evening with his usual felicitous urbanity and address. We are
happy to find that the removal of the Society to their new build-
ing has not only called forth the liberality of our friends to the
amount of £400, but also added many new members to our roll.

The President (Principal Dawson) spoke as follows : — The
occasion of our meeting here this evening is a memorable one in
the history of this Society, and I trust also in the annals of Na-
tural Science in Canada. We have long desired to possess a
building suitable for the preservation and exhibition of the large
and increasing collection which is to-day, for the first time, ade-
quately exposed to public view. (Applause.) This end we have
at last attained, and I desire here, in as few words as possible, to
express our obligation to those by whose aid this Society has at
length found a fitting local habitation. And first, I may say that
the Society owes much to the zeal and activity of its officers ; and
without derogating from the merits of others, I should expressly
mention the Recording Secretary, Mr. John Leeming, the Curator
Dr. Fenwick, and the Treasurer, Mr. Ferrier. We owe, also, an
expression of gratitude to several gentlemen not officers of the
Society, for aid in the arrangement of the objects in the museum,
and more especially to Mr. D' Urban, and to one of our guests
of this evening, Mr. Carpenter, who has kindly devoted two days
to the proper classification of our collection of Mollusks. I must
next refer to the liberal terms on which the University of McGill
College has bestowed the ground on which this building stands —
terms which exact only that which this Society is at all times
most ready to offer, access to its collection, as a means of assist-
ing the studies of our younger naturalists. I may add, on behalf
of the University, that it rejoices to have it in its power thus to
aid a Society engaged, like itself, in the promotion of liberal edu-
cation and science. I Have next to refer to the kind liberality of
the citizens of Montreal, in contributing, by voluntary subscrip-
tions and payment for life memberships, to our building fund, and
to the transference to this Society, for the same purpose, of the
the balance in the hands of the Committee for the American Asso-
ciation. For the rest, we have expended in the same manner the
proceeds of the sale of our former building, including, of course,
the amount of the bequest of the late Rev. Mr. Somerville. The
building has cost about $10,000, and we shall probably have

Natural History Society of Montreal. 143

remaining upon it a debt of about $2,000. It is very desirable
that we should be freed from this burden, and our only hope for
this is the continued bounty of our friends, which we trust still
further to stimulate by the offer of life memberships, giving a
substantial interest in the Society in exchange for contributions to
its building fund. It might be supposed that after so large efforts
on our part, we might successfully urge claims on the Legislature
for a grant from the public funds; but we have learned from
experience that Government regards the scientific tendencies of
the citizens of Montreal as in no need of its fostering care. To
other cities, smaller it is true, and less wealthy, liberal grants
have been made for scientific purposes; but our independence
has been fully acknowledged, in the past year, by the non-pay-
ment of even the pittance of .£50 per annum formerly accorded.
I would not have it understood that we wish to approach the
Legislature as a pauper institution. With our present building,
collection and membership, and with a self-supporting journal of
our proceedings, supported by the enterprise of a Montreal pu-
blisher, we are in a position to say that we can faithfully apply
for the benefit of Canadian science any means placed within our
reach, and can even, as in the case of the grant for the meeting
of the American Association in Montreal, treble such sums by our
own contributions of means and effort ; still, if we receive no such
aid, we are content with the advantages derived from our position
in this great centre of population. (Cheers.) Natural History
teaches us that it is by no accident that the greatest and most
prosperous city of British America is placed on the Island of
Montreal. In its situation half-way between Cape Race and Ford
du Lac ; at the confluence of our two greatest rivers ; opposite
the great national highway of the Hudson andChamplain Valley;
at the point where the St. Lawrence ceases to be navigable for
ocean ships, and where that great river, for the last time in its
course to the sea, affords a gigantic water power ; at the meeting
point of the two races that divide Canada, and in the centre of a
fertile plain nearly as large as all England ; in these we recognise
a guarantee for the greatness of Montreal, not based on the frail
tenure of human legislation, but on the unchanging decrees of the
Eternal, as stamped on the world that he has made. (Applause.)
We know, from the study of these indications, that were Canada
to be again a wilderness, and were a second Cartier to explore it,
he might wander over all the great regions of Canada and the

144 Natural History Society of Montreal.

West, and, returning to our mountain ridge, call it again the
Royal Mount, and say that to this point must the wealth and
population of all this new world flow. It is not worthy of a city
so placed to solicit mere artificial dignities ; but it is worthy of it to
promote within itself all those high moral and intellectual
influences which should flow from it to the region around.
(Cheers.) Although, therefore, this Society is not for Montreal
alone but for Canada, and, as far as may be, for the world ; yet,
if it should rest for its support on this city alone, we know that,
with the kind blessing of the Providence that has given us this
goodly heritage, and with that support, cordially and liberally as
it is always given to every deserving institution, we may hope to
take a high place among the learned Societies of the western
world. (Cheers.)

Sir William Eyre, said : — It was not without some consider-
able hesitation, that I accepted the proffered honour of addressing
you on this occasion. I believe it is one of the essential requisites
to addressing the public, to be well acquainted with the subject
on which you are to speak, and in this respect I confess my
deficiency. However, I feel emboldened and encouraged by the
indulgence of a Montreal public, which has borne before the
garrulity of an old soldier with admirable patience. (Applause.)
And, although possessed of no scientific lore, I hope I have suffi-
cient intelligence to appreciate attainments, to which I have
myself no pretension, and sufficient feeling to respect and rever-
ence the great S a vans, who undoubtedly deserve the honour of
being classed among the benefactors of mankind. What preater
or nobler task can be assigned to genius, than that of diffusing
truth and enlarging the sphere of our knowledge, and this not
for the sake of mere amusement or the gratification of curiosity,
or for the sake of being esteemed a little more knowing than
others — objects not worthy of our ambition. But the leading
advantage of the cultivation of science is this, that it is impossible
or nearly so, to cultivate the faculties of the mind, and to enlarge
the understanding without, at the same time, improving * the
heart, so as to make us better men, better husbands, better fathers,
better neighbours, and better citizens, because we thereby get
something interesting to think, and to talk about, instead of
talking of and against each other. (Applause.) Those who
have turned their attention to such subjects, know the pleasure-
able emotions which spring up within us, as we advance in true

Natural History Society of Montreal. 145

knowledge. Those emotions are among the noblest of our nature,
and in proportion as they are cultivated, the heart becomes soft-
ened and humanized. Those who once imbibe a relish for such
pursuits, turn away almost instinctively from those grosser plea-
sures, which degrade mankind. There may be exceptions, but
that is their general result and tendency. Some there are who
think that human nature is only acted upon by considerations,
which have self for their object. I think such philosophers are
mistaken. They do not see the whole of the truth. They forget
that man is made in the likeness and image of his Maker.
Every man, however low and humble may be his position, is
conscious of possessing something noble in his nature, which at
times will respond to high and noble considerations. And if
sometimes, why not always? Why should not such occasional
visitations become the habit of the man ? Nor is the pleasure of
intellectual pursuits confined to the literati or to any particular
class. There are a few in every class who can relish and appre-
ciate such enjoyments. And if a few, why should not many ?
Even the benefit of a few is a sufficient inducement to generous
minds to cause them to labour in the cause of humanity, but the
aim of a large philanthropy will always be to convert the few
into the many. (Applause.) I was much impressed with some
things which came under my observation while travelling in
Greece. Though always aware, that the modern Greeks resem-
bled the ancient Greeks, their progenitors, in many respects, and
that at all events, they were remarkable for their intelligence, I
was not prepared to find what I did find on one or two occasions
— the poor Greek peasants, but recently emancipated from the
galling yoke of Turkish oppression, as they reposed under the
6hade of their olives, poring over the pp^es of Xenophon and
Herodotus. (Applause.) Yet such was the case. They seemed
perfectly aware of \\iq, prestige which had once hung, like their
own mountain mist, over their beautiful land. Thev knew well
the glorious height from which their race had fallen, but contem-
plating the glorious deeds of the past, and perhaps, dreaming of
a glorious future, they seemed to forget the poverty and wretch-
edness of their present position. (Applause.) So too, in my
own profession, many would be surprised if they went into the
barrack-room, and saw the description of books that were to be
found in the hands of not a few of the soldiers. Some are apt
to fancy that the poor soldiers, the humble, but faithful servants

Canadian Nat. 5 Vol. IV. No. 2.

146 Natural History Society of Montreal.

of the crown, have no relish for intellectual pursuits. The world
gives them credit for courage and fortitude — and those qualities
were well exemplified on the bleak and dreary plateau before
Sebastopol, where the soldiers, though suffering every sort of
miseiy, half clothed, half fed, over-worked, and almost ema-
ciated, yet never flinched from their duty, but were always ready
to meet the enemy. (Cheers.) All this the world gave them
credit for, but it is not so generally known that many of them have
minds cultivated to a degree far beyond what you would expect
in their position. They have as keen a feeling and relish for
what is great and noble as have any of our prosperous civilians.
(Applause.) Returning then to the point from which I set out
let me say that I think such institutions as this, which has for its
object the searching out of truth and the diffusion of knowledge,
are of real benefit to mankind, and that those who take a pro-
minent lead in them deserve to stand high in the estimation of
their fellow-men. It is a pleasing thing to those who take an
interest in Canada to find that the people of Montreal, its princi-
pal city, give so warm a support to institutions of this kind.
Montreal is already a great and flourishing city, and is every day
growing in commercial importance. Its citizens are rapidly
becoming wealthy and taking their place among the merchant-
princes of the world. Its buildings are rising in all directions
and casting their shadows over this splendid stream, which not
only connects Canadians with the ends of the earth, but unites
them among themselves, more effectually than any political union
could do, and it can boast of that stupendous bridge, which, as
an unrivalled work of art, is attracting the attention of the world.
AH this is subject of proud congratulation to the citizens o
Montreal, but it is also right and fitting that they should shew to
the world that, while not neglectful of material interests, they
have minds which can appreciate subjects of a higher order, and
that, while they know how to acquire wealth, they know also how
worthily to spend it. (Loud cheers.)

Principal Dawson then introduced Professor Hall of Albany,
whose reputation as a naturalist, he said, was not merely Ameri-
can, but world-wide. (Cheers.)

Professor Hall said : — I have been somewhat reluctant to
accept the invitation to address this assembly, feeling quite unfit
to do so, as I have been indisposed for several days, and I am
afraid I am quite unprepared to say anything likely to interest

Natural History Society of Montreal. 147

you. But, coming from the United States, where you believe or
at least are wont to say we are in advance of you in natural
science, it would be a great gratification to me, if, by appearing
here on this occasion, I could give any encouragement to a
society like this, having for its object the advancement of natural
science — a study to which I have devoted 30 years of my life,
with scarcely a thought of anything else. It is aiw T ays very
gratifying to me to meet an assembly of persons who are engaged
in advancing, or who are doing anything to advance the cause
of natural science. With us in the United States any organi-
zation of societies for the advancement of natural science reaches
but a little way into the last century. A few years prior to the
commencement of the present century, a few gentlemen, meeting
in Philadelphia in the back office of a druggist's store, organized
the Philadelphia Academy of natural science, which is now a
most flourishing institution, possessing the largest natural history
collection of any society in the United States. I believe about the
same period the society which now bears the name of the Albany
Institute was organized. At Albany we have three societies,
having objects different but yet closely related the one to the
other. We have one organized for the advancement of natural
history, another for agriculture, another for arts and manufactures,
and when w 7 e look to our records, we find that all kept equal
pace in improvement. There the cast-iron ploughshare was
invented, and improvements in that art on which we all depend
for our subsistence went hand in hand with discoveries in natural
science. The organization of our agricultural societies dates
from almost the same period as the organization of our natural
history societies, and the improvement of agricultural engines has
kept pace with the progress of science. In other cities too of
the United States, we have societies formed for the advancement
of natural science in all its departments. \ our society had a
more recent origin, and you can give good account of the years
of its existence by what it has already done. Your collections
are already very important, and I am enabled to say so from a
close personal examination, this not being the first occasion that
I have seen them. You have already brought together very
valuable materials to form the nucleus of that more extensive
collection which would fully represent the natural history of entire
Canada. And, as I have observed from the remarks of your
president, you are fully alive to the advantages in this respect of

148 Natural History Society of Montreal.

your geographical position, accessible alike from the sea-board,
from the South, and from the West, so that with you the forma-
tion of a cabinet of natural science in all its departments would be a
matter of comparative ease. All that is necessary is that the
spirit which engages your interest in this society should be suffi-
ciently pervasive to enlist the services of a sufficient number who
shall devote themselves to the interests of science. That their
names should be famous ought not to be their object. With the
man who cultivates science, truth as manifested in nature should
be the object of his devotion, himself entirely forgotten. There-
fore, if you would advance science, forget yourself. However
much or however little you may contribute to its treasures, never
allow yourself to be prominent. Every intelligent person can do
something in this way. If his time or means do not permit
original investigation, he can contribute to collections. Every
one can do that, and every little goes to build up the great mass.
We should all contribute something towards building up the
temple of science, so that those who come after us may acknow-
ledge that those who went before them did not live in vain.
(Applause.) There is one point which you can more readily
appreciate than we in the United States, because you are more
directly connected with our parent country. It is a new country
which we inhabit, which we are filling with the fruits of civiliza-
tion, and on whose soil we are fixing ourselves, establishing homes
like those which we or our forefathers left on the other side. We
have here too a new soil — not only a new country but a new soil,
clothed with a vegetation entirely different from that we left
across the Atlantic. Natural history embraces this soil and all
its products, and not only the soil but the rocks from which it is
derived, the plants and trees which it grows, and the animals
which roam over its surface. Man at his beo-innino- on the earth
had nature made subservient to him, and we still are unable to
subsist without those means which were more spontaneously
supplied by nature to our early parents. Man depends for his
subsistence on surrounding animals and plants, and he is unable
to live separate or apart from them. Man is not a separate and
individual creation, made to subsist separately. But the point I
am coming to is this. We have brought from the other side of
the Atlantic our domestic animals and fruits, on which our fore-
fathers were fed and nourished. We bring them and plant them
on this soil, and just in proportion as we know the character of

Natural History Society of Montreal. 149

this soil, of its underlying rock formations, and of these rocks, in
the same proportion do we advance in civilization, which is the
great object of our life here, next to that of preparing ourserves
for a better. But on this earth we cannot separate ourselves from
the domestic animals around us. We have brought with us from
across the Atlantic those to which we and our forefathers have
been accustomed, and they too must subsist upon the food which
is grown upon their native soil. And strange to say we see these
imported plants driving out the natural weeds, which leave the
soil and give place to the grass and seeds of Europe. The plants
of Europe indeed often travel faster than the white man himself,
The solitary traveller, making a trail across the great prairies of
the West and over the Rocky Mountains, drops on his course the
seeds of European plants, which, taking root and springing up.
begin to supplant the native weeds, and thus prepare the way for
the immigration of the white man. We are carrying on a pro-
cess of rooting out which is necessary for our own existence. We
are removing from the face of the earth, first the men who pre-
ceded us, next the animals, and then the vegetation, and intro-
ducing in their stead along with ourselves the domestic animals
of Europe, and the vegetation on which they feed, and even a;
the same time the numberless insects which accompany that vege-
tation. In these circumstances it becomes a population like that
of Canada or that of the United States to study more closely than
those of Europe, the character of our soil and its products, and it
may be necessary occasionally to present this view to shew that the
cultivation of natural science is not merely a pleasant and delightful
occupation, enlarging our sphere of knowledge, and improving our
intellectual faculties, but that it is fitted to improve also our phy-
sical condition and to enhance our physical comforts. (Applause.)
I am glad to be able to congratulate you on the advances you
have made in natural science. It is one of the most pleasant
duties of my life anywhere and everywhere in the United States
to bear testimony to the advances which have been made in natu-
ral science in Canada. If you will allow me to digress for a few
moments, I would call your attention to your own geology, to
the particular substratum from which you derive your soil. You
have wrought out here most admirably, by accumulating ze al, by
intelligence, and by persevering labour, a knowledge of a set of
strata which to this day are but little known in Europe. Your
knowledge of your Laurentian rocks is far in advance of anything

50 Natural History Society of Montreal,

known in Europe of rocks of the same age. These are not prim-
ary rocks. They have been called so. But here in Canada you
have the merit of having first pointed out to the world that they
are stratified rocks, that they have been laid down by water, that
they shew beds of lime and saudstone laid down by w r ater, but
modified by subsequent changes. (Applause.) The knowledge
of this, of the age of these rocks, of their stratified formation, and
of their valuable minerals, is due to Canadian research. You
have demonstrated, moreover, the stratification of another set of
rocks, called here the Huronian, which had always formerly been
thought to belong to the supposed primary chaotic mass. You
have then your Laurentian and Huronian rocks, lying at tho
foundation of your geology, as monuments to your attainments iu
geological science. (Applause.) Then, with reference to the
fossiliferous rocks, you have already done so much, that I cannot
attempt to go over the ground. In the Trenton limestones, a
Canadian has brought to light those beautiful stone lilies which
grow in groups or forests beneath the sea. Your Anticosti too
has furnished us with new light in geology. The gap between
the Upper and Lower Silurian groups which we have been
endeavouring in vain to fill up, you have extended to many hun-
dreds of feet, teeming with the remains of ancient life. Again, it
just now occurs to me that while we in the United States have been
talking of fucoids, and trying to give names to fragments of
plants that we found stranded among our strata, it is you who
nave set us right. One of your number, the Presideut of this
Society, found us drifting out to sea upon sea-weeds, and has
brought us back, shewing that we had been dealing merely with
rootlets of a plant which belongs to the Devonian period in all
its course from its beginning to its end. This is another point in
which in Canada you are far in advance of other geologists^
(Applause). I do not wish to depreciate what has been done by
my friends among ourselves on the other side, but these are cer-
tainly most encouraging steps which have been taken here in the
progress of geological investigation — and those I have mentioned
are not all. If I had time I could particularize many more. If,
for example, I turn to the economical results of your Survey — for
we must go to the soil or to the rocks for our economic materials
everywhere and always — then I feel bound to say that you have
done more than all our naturalists put together. (Applause.)
We have not in any of our collections such a variety of economic

Natural History Society of Montreal. 1 5 1

materials as you have here collected in Montreal. In the few years
that Canada has been making progress, its progress has been
great, and if any feeling akin to jealousy could spring up in my
mind, it would be the fear lest Canada, in point of scientific
attainments, should in a few years distance us on the other side.
In my lessons in geography, as a school-boy, some quarter of a
century ago, I remember that we read of Canada as being almost
a wilderness, and that it was principally known for its exports of
lumber and fur. (Laughter.) But, if 30 years ago, Canada was
only known for her lumber and her furs, in 1851 and 1855, at
the London and Paris exhibitions, Canada was known for
something else, namely, the abundance of her economic resources,
brought to light by the investigations of her geologists. If we
look at the records of science during the last fifteen years, I think
they will bear out the statement that no state or country on this
or on the other side of ihe Atlantic has male more rapid progress
in scientific investigations than Canada has done during that
period. (Applause.) I have mentioned only a few of the things
you have done, principally to eucourage you to go on and do still
more. I would urge upon one and all of you to go on building
up this Natural History Society as a great centre, where you
will not merely accumulate material shewing what Canada can
produce, but where you will have a collection in which comparisons
can be mi le in all the departments of natural history, and where
the student can go to ascertain the names of the objects he is
studying, and to see in what respects he can assist in still further
enriching the collection. This is an encouraging prospect, and I
would only say in closing — so labour that when your children and
children's children come hereafter to look at the records of Cana-
dian science, they may be able to say — " How much has been done
by those who have gone before us ; let us not be remiss in our
duty, but let us goon extending, and still extending what has been
done by our forefathers." (Loud applause.)

The meeting then adjourned half anliour for refreshments, and
conversation.

The President having again taken the Chair,

Hon. Mr. Ciiauveatj rose and said he felt more than he could
express, at being called upon on an occasion like this to address
some observations to such an intellectual as well as such a bril-
liant assemblage. Every one who wished for the advancement
of science must feel proud that the Natural History Society of

152 Natural History Society of Montreal.

Montreal bad at last succeeded in founding a building like this,
which besides answering better tban any previous building for the
requirements of the Society, would also prove an ornament to the
city. He could inform them, on behalf of the educational and
literary bodies with which he was connected, that they viewed
the erection of this building with the greatest pleasure, and were
greatly gratified that at length the labours of the Montreal Natu-
ral History Society had met with such a reward as was witnessed
in the opening and inauguration of this hall. He was one of
those who believed that the material progress of a community
depends principally upon its intellectual progress ; and he thought
this was the general opinion. When such was the fact the inau-
guration of this building ought to be regarded by the community
as an event of no common occurrence. He had been glad to hear
that the names of Canadian men of Science and their labours
were so well known and appreciated in the United States, and he
was certain that the audience would listen with renewed interest
to the names of a few Canadian scientific men, names it would
not be out of place to recall on an occasion like the present.
(Applause.) Hon. Mr. Chauveau then read the following brief
biographical sketches: —

Michel Sarrazin, Royal Physician and Correspondent of the
Academy of Science, appears to me to have been the person who
occupied himself most with Natural History in Canada. He was
a native of Nuyts, in Bourgoyne. His skill as a surgeon was
proverbial. In 1700 he wrote an anatomical description of the
beaver, which was read in 1*704 by Pitton Tournefort ; also, in
1721, his anatomical description of the muskrat. It appears that
so far he had had the modest sum of 600f, " without any reward
from those whom he served," because he was " the only doctor
in the whole country." The Dictionary of Natural Science, 6th
vol., says that his work is the most complete in existence. He
also employed his attention with other animals. The academy
demanded from him information on the botany of the country,
and I have reason to believe it was this that led him to discover
Sarracenea Canadensis. He died at Quebec in 1734.

Gauthier, also a physician at Quebec, was known to have
greatly occupied himself with Botany. Of him I have nothing
better to tell than what Bibaud has already said.

The Marquis Galissonniere (Governor from 1747-49) appears
also to have attended very much to Natural History ; and Kalm

Natural History Society of Montreal. 153

has told us that in hearing him he believed he listened to the
great Linnaeus.

Pierre Boucher, of Boucherville, who was Governor of Three
Rivers, was equally remarkable for his integrity and magnanimity.
He was in the country 30 years, when he was deputed to go to
Louis the Fourteenth. He informs us that the great King was
delighted by his frank answers. He had been ennobled, however,
before that period. In 1663 he published a True Natural His-
tory of New France (Canada). Charlevoix said that that work
was superficial, yet people like to read it, because it informs them
of matters not now known.

Honourable Mr. Chauveau, in conclusion, tendered his person-
al congratulations to the Society for the success which had
attended their efforts, as particularly marked in the inauguration
of the building. He resumed his seat loudly applauded.

The President said it was matter for congratulation that they
had with them on this occasion some of the earlier members who
had to do with the origination of the Natural History Society.
He would now call upon Dr. Holmes, as one of those early mem-
bers, to address the meeting. (Applause.)

Dr. Holmes said that modesty w r as a quality which met with,
general approbation, and after what they had heard this evening
he thought Canada possessed a considerable stock of it. They
had been living here for years past under the impression that
they had been little known to the rest of the w r orld, and that they
had been doing very little to make themselves worthy of being
known. But this evening they had the gratification and pride of
hearing that they w 7 ere in several points of view in advance of
the whole world. (Cheers and laughter.) He accepted with
great pleasure and gratification the statements which Professor
Hall had made in regard to this point, and he was sure it had
afforded them all great pleasure to hear that the labors of the
scientific men of this country were appreciated at a distance in
the manner they appeared to be. Dr. Holmes then proceeded to
sketch the progress of the Natural History Society from its origin
to the present day. It dated back, he said, to about the period
when Professor Hall w T as being taught that Canada produced
nothing but lumber and furs. At that time, though they did not
make any very great noise externally, he w r as aware there were a
number of men in Canada, who, though placed in unfavorable
circumstances for their cultivation, nevertheless fully appreciated

154 Natural History Society of Montreal.

the value of science and literature, and who, though they did not
devote themselves to this pursuit, yet derived considerable grati-
fication from them. One of the reminiscences of his youth relat-
ed to a time when Griffintown contained but a single house, that
of Mr. Robert Griffin. That gentleman used to assemble his
friends — and he (Dr. H.) as a youth considered it a great privi-
lege to be allowed to be present — to hear recitations of Shaks-
peare. Now, as recitations of Shakspeare even at this advanced
period and in the metropolis of the world could draw large
audiences, he thought Canadians were not then so very far back
as Dr. Hall's books probably stated they were. (Laughter.) They
had even societies at that time amongst them. He belonged to
one which had existed before the Natural History Society, and
which was styled the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Montreal. This Society lasted for a year or two ; the members
got tired of it, the meetings were not attended, and it was broken
up. Some slight collections male by it, however, formed a germ
for the subsequent organization of the Natural History Society,
which commenced its operations in the year 1827, on the 12th
of May. To give it stability, it was determined that one of the
leading objects should be the formation of a collection illustrating
Natural Science. To one who, like him, had been engaged in
originating the Society, it was exceedingly gratifying to witness
such a museum as was displayed in this building to-night. (Ap_
plause.) The Society met at first in a small room, over a book-
seller's shop in St. Paul Street, and remained there for several
years until their collection became too large for their room.
They then removed to a building — now thrown down — between
the Banque du Peuple and the Montreal Bank. They remained
there for several years, and then they purchased the building from
which the Society had just now removed. At the meeting at
which the Society was finally organized on the 16th May, 1827,
there were 26 members present. Of these there were now only
three living in Montreal — the Rev. Dr. Mathieson, Hon. Judge
McCord, and himself. There was one other of these 26 original
members who was now living in Upper Canada. Whether there
might be others still living, who had left the city, he was not aware.
Dr. Holmes proceeded to L>;ive an interesting sketch of the subsequent
history of the Society, mentioning the names of several of its bene-
factors, and drawing a comparison between the liberality of the old
Lower Canadian Legislature and the strange conduct of the present

Toronto Microscopical Society. 155

Legislature in discontinuing the small grant to the Society. He
claimed also for the Natural History Society that it had procured
the Geological Survey, the benefits of which had been so strikingly
set forth by Prof. Hall. He alluded to his long intercourse with
Sir William Logan, as school-mates, as college-companions, and
in after life, and passed a eulogy on the services rendered to science
by that distinguished geologist, and then, after some further
remarks, resumed his seat amidst warm applause.

The President said that, before the proceedings closed, he had
one or two other remarks to offer. In reference to the Legislative
grant, he had just receive'! a note from the Corresponding Secre-
tary, who said : — "The Legislature has not withdrawn its grant,
but has neglected to send it." Perhaps there was a difference
there by which the Society might hereafter profit. II? had fur-
ther to state that on Tuesday, the 1st of March, they would com-
mence a course of lectures, to be continued weekly from that day,
free to the public. The regular meetings of the Society for busi-
ness purposes and scientific discussions were held monthly on the
last Monday of every month. He hoped the number of members
would now be increased, that the efficiency of the Society might
be augmented. Already, however, they had in it no small amount
of working scientific power. lie need only mention such
names as Logan and Billings in Geology; Smallwood and Hall in
Meteorology ; Holmes, Barnston and Kemp in Canadian Botany ;
D'Urban and Hingston in Zoology ; Murphy and King in
Microscopy ; who were prepared to bring to their meetings every
month something they had been doing, great or small, in the vari-
ous departments of Natural History.

The proceedings then terminated shortly after eleven o'clock.

The Toronto Microscopical Society.

On the 1st of February, 1S59, the lovers of Micros,
science in Toronto held a meeting for the purpose of forming a
society. At a subsequent meeting the constitution was adopted,
and office-bearers elected for the current year.

The following resolution was carried : —

Moved by Win. Couper, seconded by John M< Roberts, — "That
a copy of the constitution now adopted, together with a list ofthe
office-bearers of the Societv, bo forwarded to the Canadian Xa-
turalist for publication."

156 Toronto Microscopical Society.

President, — Patrick Freeland, Esq.
Vice-President, — Thomas Garbctt.
Recording Secretary, — Joseph Davids.
Cerresponding Secretary and Curator, — William Coupee.
Treasurer, — John McRoberts.

Constitution of the Toronto Microscopical Society.

ARTICLE I.

This Society shall be known as the Toronto Microscopical
Society.

ARTICLE II.

Its objects shall be to promote microscopical research, and to
collect and diffuse microscopical knowledge and information.

ARTICLE III.

Sec. 1. Any person desirous of forwarding the objects of the
Society may be admitted a member thereof, by paying the sum
of two dollars annually to its funds, and being elected a member
according to Article IV. of the Constitution.

Sec. 2. Members shall be divided into four classes, viz : Or-
dinary Members, Life Members, Corresponding Members and
Honorary Members.

Sec. 3. Ordinary Members shall be those who contribute the
sum of two dollars annually to the funds of the society.

Sec. 4. Life Members shall consist of Ordinary Members, duly
elected, who shall pay to the funds of the society the sum of thirty
dollars, or who shall give to the society books, instruments, or
microscopical specimens of the value of thirty dollars or upwards.
Or of persons who may be elected Life Members by the society
at any meeting thereof, for important services rendered to the
society.

Sec. 5. Corresponding Members shall be persons residing out
of the City of Toronto, engaged in microscopical pursuits, who
maybe desirous of forwarding the objects of the society, and who
shall contribute the sum of one dollar annually to its funds.

Sec. 6. Honorary Members shall be persons eminent for their
high standing and attainments in microscopical science, and the
number of Honorary Members shall be limited to ten.

ARTICLE IV.

Sec. 1. Any person desirous of becoming an Ordinary or Cor-
responding Member of the Society, shall signify in writing to the
Recording Secretary, such his desire, and deposit with him, at the
same time, the amount of one year's subscription.

Toronto Microscopical Society. 157

Sec. 2. He must be proposed as a candidate for admission at
a general meeting of the Society, and ballotted for at the next
ensuing general meeting, and the proposition of votes requisite
for the election of any member shall be three-fourths of the ballot.

Sec. 3. Honorary Members must be recommended for election
as such by at least three members, aud such recommendation
shall be submitted to the council for enquiry, and upon their ap-
proval of the recommendation, the person or persons proposed
shall be nominated at one general meeting, and be balloted for at
the next meeting in the same manner.

ARTICLE V.

Sec 1. Any member whose annual subscriptions shall remain
unpaid for the space of one month after the same shall become
due, shall forfeit his claim to all privileges of the Society, and
shall not be reinstated therein until he shall have paid all arrears.

Sec. 2. Members leaving the city, may, upon giving notice of
their removal to the Recording Secretary, retain their connection
with the Society, by paying the subscription of Corresponding
Members.

Sec 3. Members may be expelled from the Society upon the
recommendation of the council, and by the vote of three-fourths
of the members present at any general meeting.

ARTICLE VI.

The officers of the Society shall consist of a President, Vice-
President, Treasurer, Recording-Secretary, Corresponding-Secre-
tary, and Curator, who shall also act as Librarian.

ARTICLE VII.

Sec 1. The ordinary affairs and business of the Society shall
be arranged by the council thereof, which shall consist of the offi-
cers and four other Ordinary or Life Members, any three of whom
shall form a quorum.

Sec 2. The officers and other members of the council shall be
elected by ballot at the annual meeting of the Society in January
each year, from nominations made vivd voce at such annual meet-
ing ; and they shall hold office until the general meeting next
succeeding the appointment of their successors.

ARTICLE VIII.

Sec 1. The general meetings of the Society shall be held on
the first Tuesday in every month, except the month of January.
Five members shall be necessary to constitute a quorum at any
general or special meeting.

158 Mollusks and Radiates from Labrador.

Sec. 2. At the meeting in January, which shall he held on the
second Tuesday thereof, and shall also be called the Annual Meet-
ing, the report of the council for the past year shall be presented,
and officers and members of council for the ensuing year shall be
elected.

Sec. 3. Special General Meetings of the Society may at any

time be called by the Council, or Recording Secretary upon the

written requisition of five members, of which meetings six days

notice shall be given, and the special business to be considered

at such special general meeting shall be specified in the notices

calling the same, and no business other than what is so specified

in the notices shall be taken up or discussed at such special

meeting.

article IX.

This constitution or any article thereof may be altered or

amended at a general meeting of the Society. But it shall be

necessary in every case that notice of the proposed alteration or

amendment shall be given at the consecutive ordinary meetings

prior to the meeting at which it shall be considered and voted upon.

JVote on Mollusks and Radi.Ues from Labrador.

Believing that one useful function of the " Naturalist " is the
publication of local lists of species, we insert the following cata-
logue of specimens, collected on the coast of Labrador by Mr. C.
C. Carpenter, a missionary sent to that region under the auspices
of a Society in Montreal. They were obtained principally at
Esquimaux Bay and other places in the vicinity of the Straits of
Belleisle : —

Buccinum undo turn — largest specimen 3^ inches in length.

Trophon (Fusus) Scalariforme, a specimen an inch and three
lines in length.

Hostel laria occidentalis — of rather large size.

Littorina rudis.

L. littorea (palliata).

Margarita helecina (Arctica).

Lottia (Tectura) testudinalis — -some specimens more than an
inch in diameter.

Saxicava rugosa — in Nullipores, which seem to be very large
and abundant.

Mya. arenaria — of very small size.

Solen ensis — large specimens.

TellinaGroenlandica — abundant, and sometimes highly colored.

My til as edulis — Some of the specimens approach very nearly
in their ovate forms and strong growth lines to those found in
the tertiary clays.

Pec ten Magellanicus.

Echinus granulatus — common, and of ordinary size.

The Principles of Organic Architecture. 159

EclunaracMnus Atlanticus.

Uraster {Asteracanthion) rubens — one specimen eight inches
in 'liameter.

Uraster , a species of which I have no description.

The rays are 2J, times the breadth of the disk, Less flattened, and
with a narrower ambulacral groove than in U. rubens. The
ambulacral spines are short and cylindrical ; the upper part is
nearly uniformly and very thickly covered with groups of club-
shaped spines, nearly flat at their extremities. The madreporic
plate is coarsely marked ; the terminal plates of the rays are dis-
tinct and nearly annular. Is this the species described by Desor,
in Proc. of Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc, as Asteracanthion Foibesi. All
Mr. Carpenter's specimens have six rays.

Halichondria — Three species, all apparently identical with spe-
cies found in other parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

Mr. Carpenter's collection also contains Platycarcinus irroratu s

Balanus crenatus, and B. halanoides (ovular is).

R E V I E AV .

The Master-Builder'' s Plan ; c r, the Principles of Organic . 1 rchL
tecture as ///(Heated in the typical forms of Animals. By
George Ogilvie, M.D., Aberdeen. London: Longman &
Co. Montreal : B. Dawson & Son. Pp. 19G.

The study of Zoology in these days requires something more
than merely to become acquainted with the names, appearances
habits and history of a certain number of animals with their eco-
nomic uses, and the interesting anecdotes, fabulous or true, which
have been related by travellers and lovers of the curious regard-
ing them. It is a serious matter of research to compass the field
which this wide and important department of science embraces.
A terminology must be m istered as difficult as that which pertain 3
to Chemistry, the m st technical of sciences. Anatomy and phy-
siology, with their curious structures and the difficult problems
pertaining to their final causes must be encountered; and the
department of Homology, which has risen in modern times to
vital importance, must be investigated. Comparative anatomy
has expanded itself into this latter phase, and aims at obtain-
ing for itself a distinct and generic place in Zoology. Vast as this
field may appear it is nevertheless included in the [proper and
systematic study of animal life. Difficult and profound as many
of the questions which it starts may 1"- they are yet perhaps the
most interesting, if not fascinating, of any that can engage the
human mind. They bring us into contact with mysterious life
whose source and destinies lead us to the throne of the Eternal

160 The Principles of Organic Architecture.

God ; they make us conversant with the multiplex organic forms
through which life from its highest to its lowest phases performs
its appointed functions in this world ; and they invite us to survey
the master-piece of the Divine Architect in man, his visible image
and likeness.

Of late years, among several others of note, Prof. Owen of
London has distinguished himself by his published writings in the
department of Homology. In 1848 he published his great con-
tribution to this branch of science, entitled, " On the Archetype
and Homologies of the vertebrate skeleton." This was followed
in 1839 by his work "On the Nature of Limbs." Lately he has
published a concise summary of his views, in a cheap form, in one
of the volumes of " Orr's Circle of the Sciences," which is described
by a competent critic as a " little book both accurate and intelli-
gible, and almost rendering any popular attempt in the same
direction superfluous." The subject has also been philosophically
and skilfully handled in McCosh and Dickie's " Typical Forms
and Special Ends in Creation," which, to a thinking reader, is
really a valuable work. Dr. Ogilvie's book is much smaller and
less ambitious than that of McCosh's, and aims at being more
popular ; and, we may add, more Zoological in its treatment of
the theme. The author's great object is, as he states in his intro-
duction, " not to advance new truths, but rather to gain additional
currency for such as have a fair claim to be already established^
and in particular to convey an idea of the laws of organization to
those who, without making natural history a special object of
study, may wish to have a right comprehension of its general
scope. His style is very perspicuous and vigorous. Every page
of the book gives evidence of independent thought and personal
investigation. In nine chapters he treats of the various plans on
which Animals are formed ; of the Vertebrate type and its modi-
fications in Fishes, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals ; of the Articu-
late type, with its relations to the Vertebrate, and its special
modifications ; of the Molluscan and Radiate types ; and of the
mutual relations of the leading types of organization. Chapters
eight and nine treat of the co-extensiveness of type and design
with organic matter, and their bearing on Natural Theology. In
the Appendix there is a valuable list of recent and accessible
works on the various branches of Zoology. The work is illus-
trated wnth many admirable wood-cuts ; and altogether it is a
most acceptable addition to the student's library of Natural
History.

THE

CANADIAN

NATURALIST AND GEOLOGIST.

Vol. IV. JUNE, 1859. No. 3.

ARTICLE XL — On the Microscopic Structure of some Canadian
Limestones. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.G.S., kc

[Read before the Natural History Society of Montreal.]

Geology has shewn that over a great part of the earth's surface
we can say, almost without hyperbole, "The dust we tread upon
was once alive." Great and very extensively distributed beds of
rock are of organic origin, made up of the remains of the hard
parts of animals, and these often of very minute dimensions. In
the bed of the sea, more especially in the coral regions of the
Pacific, the Indian ocean and the equatorial Atlantic, such deposits
are now manifestly in progress on a large scale; and in the arche-
pelagos of the Pacific, the Bermudas, and the peninsula of Florida,
we have examples of these modern formations elevated into land.
Similar phenomena exist on a still greater scale in the Tertiary
rocks; as for instance in the Nummulitic limestones, extending
from the west of Europe almost continuously into India, built up
into mountain masses in the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians and
Himmalaya*, and furnishing the materials of the Egyptian Pyra-
mids, and of thousands of humbler structures. In the secondary
period, the chalk and many of the oolitic limestones present simi-
lar phenomena. Similar organic rocks occur in all the members
of the palaeozoic series down to the lowest Silurian; and in these
earliest periods of the earth's geological history, when organic
Canad. Nat. 1 Vol. IV. No. 3-

1 62 Microscopic Structure of Canadian Limestones.

life was perhaps young on our planet, the quantity of organic
materials thus piled up into rock appears to have been as great as
at any subsequent time. Of this some of the silurian limestones
of Canada, and more especially the "Trenton Limestone," afford
good illustrations, to which I desire in the present paper to direct
attention; with the object, not of adding to the knowledge of
their fossils, which have been so amply and ably illustrated by
Prof. Hall and Mr. Billings, but of noticing the manner in which
fragments of these fossils have been accumulated and cemented
together into great beds of limestone.

The lowest of the silurian beds of Canada, the Potsdam sand-
stone, is wholly arenaceus, though with a few fossil remains. The
Calciferous sandstone has a greater quantity of calcareous matter
and more numerous fossil remains. The succeeding beds, the
Chazy, Birds-eye, Black River and Trenton Limestone, are as a
whole, of organic origin, and made up of more or less commi-
nuted fragments of shells, corals, and crinoids, occasionally
mixed or alternating with deposits of earthy matter. Above these
limestones the TJtica Slate consists mainly of muddy or earthy
matter, and in the Hudson River group there are frequent alterna-
tions of earthy matter with organic limestones. It thus appears
that in Canada, the head quarters of lower silurian limestone of
animal origin, is in the central members of the group, which, ac-
cording to Sir W. E. Logan, have near Montreal a thickness of
nearly four hundred yards, though much thinner in the western
part of Canada, as for example in Lake Huron, where Mr. Murray
estimates their thickness at only one hundred yards.

Perhaps the most continuous and fossiliferous of all these
limestones is that named by the geologists of New York, from
an excellent exposure at the waterfall of that name, the Trenton
Limestone. It is largely developed in the vicinity of Montreal,
and is thus described by the Provincial Geologist, as it occurs in
the quarries near the Mile-end road. " In the vicinity of Mon-
treal the lower part of the Trenton formation holds massive beds
of gray granular limestone, from which a very large amount of
the best building material used in the city has been obtained.
The quarries opened on them extend obliquely across that portion
of the Cote de la Visitation road, which is southward of the
Papineau road, their general direction in respect of one another
being about North and South. The beds vary in thickness from
three inches up to three feet, and present an aggregate of from

Microscopic Structure of Canadian Limest07ies. 165

r

■sight to twelve feet. In successive quarries, from the one to the
other of which the beds can be traced with considerable certainty,
individual beds appear occasionally to change in thickness, a
massive one gradually dividing in the strike into two or more?
or several thin layers uniting into a solid mass. Slight changes
in the color also occur, giving shades of lighter and darker
gray."

This gray granular crystalline stone, the texture of which we
may see by picking up a chip at any mason's shed in Montreal,
is wholly an organic rock, consisting of the hard parts of marine
animals, in a fragmentary condition. In some specimens, joints of
those curious stalked star fishes, the crinoids or stone lilies, pre-
dominate. In others a little branching coral, the Monticulipora
dendrosa of Mr. Billings, but ranked as a variety of the Chaetetes
lycoperdon by Hail, is more plentiful. In others, creatures of
higher organization than the true corals, the Polyzoa, have con-
tributed countless fragments of a delicate structure, which may
often be seen spreading over the limestone in flat branches, marked
■with little holes or cells like perforations of pins, and belonging to
the genus Stictopora of Hall,* probably the Ptilodictya of the
European Paleontologists. The limestone does not merely con-
tain these organisms ; it is made up of them, sometimes entire or
in large pieces, but more frequently in minute fragments from one
tenth to one hundredth of an inch in size. Its present solid
condition is due to clear transparent calc-spar or carbonate of
lime, deposited by water in the interstices and cavities of the frag-
ments, like the " congealed water" of Bermuda or the stalagmite
of limestone caverns. This substance being perfectly crystalline,
has given its own character to the mass, which thus breaks like
marble with multitudes of shining surfaces. Under the micro-
scope, however, the true character of the material becomes at
once apparent, and the animal fragments, rendered distinct by the
remains of their organic matter in a carbonised condition, are seen
immersed in the transparent calc-spar, like pieces of potted meat
in animal jelly.

To prepare the specimens for the microscope, it is necessary only
to select thin fragments, polish them smooth on one side, then
attach the smooth surface by any transparent cement to glass, and
grind down the opposite side until the limestone is reduced to a

* Especially S. Acuta,

164 Microscopic Structure of Canadian LimestGnes.

thin transparent film. A low power is sufficient to show the
general forms and nature of the fragments, but they are often so
beautifully preserved as to display their most minute structures
when examined with high powers.

With the view of ascertaining whether there is any difference
of material in different parts of the beds,. I selected from one of the
quarries, containing two thick beds with some intervening and
overlying thin shaly layers, specimens representing the overlying
shaly limestone, the material between the two beds, and the upper,
middle, and lower portions of ea;di bed. Duplicate preparations
of all these specimens were kindly male for me by Mr. E. Murphy,
of this city; and on being examined they afforded the following
results : —

1. Above upper bed.— -Very small fragments of crinoids and shells with

numerous minute and probably young uni-
valve and bivalve shells, in patches in a
paste containing black earthy and organic
matter.

2. Upper part of bed A.— Principally joints of crinoids ; some fragments

of corals, especially Ptilodictya and Monti-
culipora, and shells.

3. Middle of Bed A.— -Similar to the last but more corals.

4. Bottom of bed A. — A still greater proportion of Ptilodictya and

Monticulipora.

5. Between A. & B. — Crinoids and Monticulipora in about equal pro-

portions, some Ptilodictya.

6. Upper part of bed B. — Similar to last, but still more corals.

7. Middle of B. — Principally Monticulipora and Ptilodictya, but still

many crinoids.

8. Bottom of B.— Almost wholly Monticulipora and Ptilodictya.

It thus appears that the only material difference in these speci-
mens is the great prevalence of crinoids toward the top, and of
corals and Polyzoa toward the bottom. It is proper to add that f
though the families and genera named above largely predomi-
nate, there may be detected in any specimen fragments of shells
of brachiopods and gasteropods, and of corals of other genera
than those named, though in comparatively small quantity.*
With the exception of the first specimen, none exhibited more
than traces of earthy or aernaceous matter.

The fine grained earthy limestone, marked No. 1, and which,

* According to Mr. Billings, Cystideans have also been important
contributors ; but in my examinations their remains are not distinguished
from those of the Crinoids.

Microscopic Sructure of Canadian Limestones. 165

like the overlying dark limestones, is not used for tbe more import-
ant building purposes, must have been, when recent, a chalky
rock, made up of very minute fragments of shells and corals; but
it has been blackened by the carbonization of its organic matter,
and hardened by the penetration of a calcareous cement ; still its
general structure under the microscope is not dissimilar from that
of chalk. It contains multitudes of minute unbroken shells, some
of which have much the aspect of foraminifera, as may be seen
in Fig. 1 .; but they may possibly be univalve mollusks. I

Fig. 1. — Earthy Trenton Limestone, Montreal,, (20 diams.)
hope, however, by the examination of a larger number of speci-
mens, to determine whether minute foraminifera really occur in
these ancient beds.

Pig. 2. — Crystalline Trenton Limestone, Montreal, horizontal section,

(10 diameters.)

In the coarse grained variety the materials are somewhat loosely
paced, and in a horizontal section like Fig. 2, may appear quite

166 Microscopic Structure of Canadian Limestones.

disconnected, but in a vertical section they are seen to rest upon;
one another, and sometimes to be very closely packed, as in Fig-
3, in which translucent fragments of crinoids are seen to be

Fig. 3. — Trenton Limestone, Montreal, vertical section T (10 diams.y

packed in broken corals, chiefly Ptilodictya, and the irregularity
of the planes of deposition is marked by two slender bands of fine
black earthy and organic slime.

The beds of this remarkable organic limestone are usually very
uneven on the surface — the smaller beds very much so ; and on
these surfaces there often appear quantities of Monticulipora and
Ptilodictya in a perfect state, as well as occasionally Brachiopoda,
Orthoceratites and Trilobites. Between the beds occurs a black shaly
material consisting principally of clay and fine sand, darkened by
carbonaceous matter, a.nd containing more or less of fragments of
shells and corals. The beds of organic fragments now constituting
the gray limestone, must have been drifted over the bottom by
strong and apparently somewhat irregular currents, in which in
-very favorable spot corals fixed themselves and grew. The black
shale appears to have settled in the form of fine mud, which often
coats over, as with a varnish, the surfaces of the limestone and the
fossils lying on them ; and which has usually only partially filled
up the depressions of the surface, previous to the deposition of &
new bed of the grey limestone. In the upper part of the Trenton
formation at Montreal, the earthy matter so far prevails that the
'imestone becomes black and compact, and is interstratified with
much shale, but it still contains numerous organic fragments,
which in some beds become predominant.

The Trenton and its associated limestones are widely distributed
rocks. Their outcrop runs from Quebec along the north shore of
the St. Lawrence to Montreal — then southward through the valley
of Lake Champlain into New York, where it skirts the Azoic
region of the Adirondack, and returning northward along tke

Microscopic Structure of Canadian Limestones. 167

valley of the Black river, re-enters Canada at the lower end of
Lake Ontario, along which these limestones extend in a broad band,
and crossing to Lake Huron stretch along the chain of the Mani-
toulin Islands, and then run again to the southward along the
west side of Lake Michigan. There are also in Canada outlying
patches on the Ottawa and Lake St. John. Throughout all these
regions the gray crystalline beds are more or less represented ;
though in the State of New York they appear to be in the upper
part of the formation, and to thin out and disappear toward the
South.* Specimens from Chateau Richer below Quebec, from
Ottawa, from the La Cloclie mountains, and from great Manitoulin
Island, exhibit very nearly the same microscopic characters with
those of the Montreal quarries. In the stone of Chateau Richer
crinoids predominate. In that of Ottawa there is a greater pre-
valence of fragments of shells. In that of La Cloche aud Mani-
toulin the materials are much the same as at Montreal.

The conditions of the accumulation of this great and extended
mass of animal fragments, it is not difficult to understand. An
ocean area, probably not of great depth, the growth of multitudes
of branching corals and crinoids, the destruction of these by the
waves and by the death of successive generations, the drifting of
their remains by currents over the bottom, the occasional invasion
of the clear water by muddy sediment — these are the conditions
which must have prevailed when the gray Trenton limestones
were formed. Professor Hall and Mr. Billings have remarked that
the Brachiopod shell-fish of the Chazy and Trenton are usually of
smaller size than that which they attain in overlying formations*
This may have been due to the conditions so favorable to the
spreading of organic fragments over the sea bottom.

In the Island of Montreal the Black river and Chazy limestones
crop out from beneath the Trenton. The quarries at Pointe Claire*
worked for the Victoria Bridge, are believed by Sir W. E. Logan
to represent principally the former. The western or back quarries
on the Mile End road and those of Isle Jesus belong to the latter.
The stone worked for the piers of the Victoria Bridge presents
several varieties in alternate layers. One of these has the coarse
crystalline aspect of the gray Trenton, but it consists principally
of fragments of Brachiopodous shells ; masses of coral however oc-
curring in some layers. A finer variety which constitutes a large
proportion of the stone, is made up of rounded and comminuted

* See Geological Surveys of Canada and New York.

168 Microscopic Structure of Canadian Lime stoves.

fragments of shells and crinoids, which, like the fragments of some
of the modern limestones of Florida, bear evidence of the rolling
action of the surf or of strong currents. Another variety is fine
and compact like the upper part of the Trenton at Montreal, and
shows a homogeneous calcareous and earthy paste filled with frag-
ments of shells, crinoids, and corals. Figs. 4 and 5 represent the

Vil

igp

»,

«W «T " -

^!iS

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.
Figs. 4 & 5. — Limestone from Pt. Claire Quarries, (10 diams.)

two last varieties, and may be taken as fair specimens of the ma-
terial of the piers of the great railway bridge, which solid and
durable though they are, are composed of shelly fragments, that once
drifted like snow before the ocean currents. The Chazy lime-
stone of Isle Jesus is characterised by Sir W. E. Logan, as " a
cemented aggregation of organic remains." I have not examined
this stone, but that of the same formation in the vicinity of Mon-
treal, consists almost entirely of broken brachiopodous shells, many
of them probably the Atrypa plena, which is so abundant in these
same beds. (Fig. 6.)

To persons unfamiliar with such subjects, it is a striking fact
that the buildings of our cities are constructed of the debris of the
skeletons of marine animals, belonging to a bygone period of the
earth's history, and that these same remains constitute sheets of
limestone extending over many thousands of square miles, with a
thickness of several hundred feet. As already stated, however, these

On Ozone.

169

facts are very familiar to Geologists; yet they merit, especially
with regard to the older formations, more attention in some res-

Fig. 6. — Chazy Limestone, Island of Montreal, (10 diams.)
pects than they have hitherto received. Microscopic examina-
tions of organic limestones may serve to show the precise species
which have most contributed to their accumulation, and the
conditions under which their remains were spread abroad, and
cemented into stone. They might also serve to identify lime-
stones not containing entire organic remains, by showing the
species out of whose fragments they had been formed. To do
anything really valuable toward these objects, would require the
patient preparation and examination of a great number of speci-
mens; but, to any one who has leisure for the task, it might form
a very interesting field of study.

ARTICLE XII.— On Ozone. By Charles Smallwood, M.D.,
LL.D., Professor of Meteorology in the University of
McGill College, Montreal.

(Presented to the Natural History Society.)

The investigations on the nature and properties of Ozone, have
within the few past years engaged the attention, and become the
subject of enquiry, alike of the chemist, the meteorologist and the
physician. The chemist has found its manifestations and properties
approximate to, if not identical with Oxygen in a peculiar state of
existence or development. The meteorologist (especially of the
European continent) has proclaimed it to be the instrument, or
medium, that Providence has secured to provide for the pro-
duction of the grand phenomena of nature ; that its action can
explain the formation of all meteors, as well as the fluctuation and
diurnal changes in the pressure of the atmosphere indicated by
the oscillations of the Barometer, and that it is the true cause and

170 On Ozone.

means of restoring to animals and to man a sufficient and normal
amount of Oxygen, to replace that which may have become
consumed by animal respiration, and the various operations of
nature and of art. The physician, in his investigations on the
cause of disease, and as guardian of the public health, more es
pecially in reference to diseases of an epidemic character, has
not been silent in ascribing to it a salutary or deleterious
agency in proportion to its presence or absence, and as exerting
an important influence on the health, of individuals and of na-
tions, varying with the time, the season, and the temperature.

A substance, the knowledge of which seems to be fraught with
life and health, both to the animal and vegetable kingdom, and
which must, as a consequence, have an important bearing on the
agricultural and commercial wealth of nations, demands from the
man of science, a calm and patient investigation, so as to give to
it a proper place in the annals of true science.

It is for this purpose that the present observations are sub-
mitted, trusting that in so vast a field for enquiry, many may be
found as co-labourers — willing to contribute, however little, to the
vast treasury of true knowledge.

As far back as the end of the 18th century Van Marum, in
experimenting on the electrical action on oxygen speaks of the
odour or smell being very strong, and which appeared to him as
the smell of electrical matter, and it is scarcely to be doubted that
Gilbert, Hawksbee, Dufay, Franklin and others were equally
sensible of the peculiar odour generated by electrical action.

It is about 19 years ago since Suhonbein, during his investiga-
tions on the decomposition of water by the Voltaic pile, remarked
the odour that became manifest, and in a letter written to Arago
in 1840, he says, "that for some years past he had been familiar
" with the odour generated during the decomposition of water by
" this voltaic current, " and to this simple elementary body he
gave the name of Ozone (from ozo, to smell).

The first accounts of the investigations of this substance may be
found in the " Memoirs de la Societe d'Histoire naturelle de BcLle?
in the "Journal de chimie pratique" Erdmann in the "An-
nates de Poggendorf" also in the "Archives de V Electricite^
de Marignac et De La Rive, and also in the various British sci-
entific periodicals.

Schonbein at this period of his investigations believed it to be
a simple elementary body analogous to chlorine, bromine and

On Ozone. 172

iodine, but his opinion soon became modified, and he declared
that nitrogen was not a single body, but consisted of hydrogen
and Ozone, and it was supposed really to be a component of
nitrogen ; and his opinion was supported by Assam, who
showed the identity of atmospheric Ozone, and Ozone produced
by chemical action or decomposition : further investigation led to
the opinion that it was a peroxyde of hydrogen.

Schonbein soon abandoned the opinion that Ozone was a com-
ponent of nitrogen, and inclined to the opinion that it was a pei-
oxyde of Hydrogen. Marignac and De la Rive demonstrated that
Ozone could be formed without the presence of nitrogen. And
Berzelius had already expressed an opinion that it was oxygen in
a peculiar state.

At this period of its history, Fremy and Becquerel undertook a
series of experiments illustrating the action of electricals upon
oxygen, and proposed the name of Voxyg-ene Electrise which
seems to have been at that time also adopted by Schonbein. Its
presence in the atmosphere and its special production, has placed
it beyond doubt as a substance possessing peculiar chemical pro-
perties, although several methods have been adopted to produce
it artificially, such as the action of sulphuric acid on bichromate
of potash, and also on the peroxide of lead, the most simple and
easy method is by the use of Phosphorus. The process generally
adopted is by taking a stick of phosphorus, cleanly scraped, about
half an inch long, and putting it into a large bottle which con-
tains just sufficient water to half cover the phosphorus, and then
slightly closing the mouth, and letting it stand for some time at
a temperature not less than 60°F. Ozone soon begins to be formed
as is shown by the rising of the whitish fumes from the phos-
phorus which at the same time begins itself to be luminous. In a
few hours the quantity will be considerable, and the bottle is then
to be emptied of its contents, washed out and closed for use or ex-
periment. The necessary conditions are that the air should be at
the ordinary atmospheric pressure and at the temperature of about
60° F ; humid and cold air retards and will scarcely give rise to its
formation, and if the atmosphere be subject to an increased pres-
sure, Ozone is not formed except by an increase of temperature :
the presence of certain gases also prevents its formation.

It is also obtained by the decomposition of water by galvanism,
and it may be formed in pure and dry oxygen gas by passing
through it the electric spark. It may be said also to be formed
generally when chemical combination takes place in contact

172 On Ozone.

with the atmosphere, and the consequent reaction or disengagement
of oxygen.

It is probable that oxygen may be modified more readily by
electric action than any other gas, and it has been shown by Be-
querel, Faraday and others, that it may be rendered magnetic.

Ozone is colourless, possessing a peculiar odor, resembling
chlorine, and when diluted, cannot be distinguished from the
electrical smell. Its density, according to Andrew & Tate, is said
to be four times that of Gxygen. It is a most powerful oxydizing
agent, converting most of the metals into peroxides, it is very
slightly absorbed by water after long contact, — a very high tem-
perature destroys its properties, — it possesses bleaching properties,
hence its affinity to chlorine; it combines with chlorine, bromine,
and iodine. It is rapidly absorbed by albumen, fibrine, blood, &c
It is a most powerful disinfectant, and when largely diffused in
atmospheric air causes difficult respiration, acting powerfully on
the mucous membrane, and in still larger quantities may become
fatal.

During the past year, Schonbein has been actively engaged on
the modifications of oxygen, and is of opinion that there are two
kinds of (allotropic) modifications of active oxygen, standing to
each other in the relation of positive and negative, and that there
are a positive active and negative active oxygen — an ozone and
an ant-ozone which in being brought together neutralize each other.

Clausius has endeavoured to account for the relation of volume
existing between simple and compound gases, by the assumption
that in simple gases several atoms are combined to form one
molecule of oxygen, that for instance one molecule of oxygen
consists of two atoms of oxygen, and is of opinion that under special
circumstances it may happen that among the number of molecules
in a given quantity of oxygen some may be decomposed into se-
parate atoms. These would differ in their relations towards other
substances, from those combined into molecules, and he considers
these uncombined atoms are Ozone.

Fortunately its presence, both in the state produced artificially
in the laboratory, and also in the atmosphere, is easily detected.
Its rapid production, its peculiar smell and other properties, ren-
der it somewhat less difficult to investigate than many other
substances. We purpose more especially to consider its na-
ture and influence in reference to Meteorology and its influence on
animals and plants.

(To be continued.)

Value of Human Life in Canada,

m

ARTICLE XIIL— On the Relative Value of Human Life in Diffe-
rent Parts of Canada. By Phtlip P. Carpenter, B.A.
{For the Canadian Naturalist.')

"While the naturalists and geologists of the Royal Mount throw
light on each other's studies in reference to extinct Palliobianchi-
ates or recent Gasteropods, it may not be out of the province of
this Journal to record facts in reference to living men and women ;
and those who would have been living had not the teachings of
modern science been disregarded, or considered as of secondary
importance to the pursuit of money or of power.

The exact connection between those sanitary conditions over
which man has control, and the actual number of deaths in any
town or district, is no longer a matter of hypothesis. The very
accurate system of registration of births and deaths which has
been carried out in England for more than 20 years, and of which
classified returns are regularly published by the Registrar-general,
has enabled chemists, physiologists, statisticians and other sanitary
reformers to compare their theories with recorded facts, and to check
off their reasonings, by the average of a long series of years. The
following instance will shew the precision with which sanitary re-
formers can now predicate the rate of mortality according to the
external circumstances of drainage, ventilation, &c. While Mr. P.
H. Holland was registrar of the southern portion of Manchester
(called Choiiton-upon-Medlock) he went through each district, tab-
ulating each street, court, &c„ in threecolumns, judging by his senses
and knowledge what their rate of mortnlity was likely to be. In
each street he also made a threefold division of the houses, according
to their character. Here therefore were nine divisions, to each of
which he assigned a supposed proportion of deaths to population.
He then directed his clerk to tabulate the actual deaths in each
of these divisions, taking the average of five years. On comparing
the theory and the facts together, in no case did they vary more
than one-half per cent. The following are the results, omitting
the fractions : —

Deaths per 1,000 inhabitants in

Best

houses

\Iiddling Worst
houses, houses.

19
18

• •

22
26
28

27
28
40

Worst streets

Thus the inhabitants of the best houses, in the best streets, live

174 Value of Human Life in Canada,

more than twice as long as those in the worst houses of the worst
streets.

The existing state of knowledge in England on these subjects,
may be gained (1) from the quarterly and annual reports of the
Registrar-general ; (2) from the reports of Her Majesty's Commis-
sioners on the Sanitary Condition of the working classes, and on
the Health of Towns ; (3) from local reports and tracts published
by the various Health-of-Towns' Associations. The present laws of
England will be found in the " Public Health Act," and especially
in the " towns-improvement clauses." All these documents could
be obtained, either gratuitously or at a very moderate expense, on
application to "P. H. Holland, Esq., H. M. Commissioner for Bu-
rial Grounds, Burial Board, Whitehall, London, England." They
would form a very important addition to the public libraries of
every Canadian city.

It is not to be expected that in a newly settled country, where
the population greatly fluctuates, according to the accidents of
immigration or commercial prosperity, the same accuracy of
detail can be arrived at. But, by collecting the facts already ac-
cessible, we can both take measures to guard against errors in
future returns, and shew the necessity of immediate sanitary regu-
lations.

For the year 1851, we are in possession of tables, very carefully
drawn out, both of the population and of deaths, arranged accord-
ing to different ages and conditions, in the various cities and dis-
tricts of Upper and Lower Canada. By comparing these, one
with another, and taking the average number of deaths for every
thousand inhabitants during the year, we obtain the following
results ; the fractions here, as elsewhere, being disregarded.

For the purposes of comparison, statistics are added from Eng-
land, where the returns are most accurately made, and the causes of
error most carefully guarded against ; and from the last official Re-
gistration Report of Massachusetts, as being a long settled State,
in climatal conditions not very dissimilar to those of Canada. The
general mortality of the principal part of Rhode Island is also
added, from the Government Report.

Value of Human Life in Canada*

175

Census of 1851.

All Canada

Upper Canada

Do. less 5 large cities. . .

Toronto

Hamilton

Kingston

Ottawa

London

Lower Canada

Do. less 2 large cities . . .

Montreal

Quebec

Total
population.

1,842,265

952,004

880,737

30,775

14,112

11,585

7,760

7,035

890,261

790,494

57,715

42,052

Total
deaths

Deaths per
1,000 inhabit's,

Percentage of total
deaths.

19,449

7,775

6,754

474

172

185

90

100

11,674

8,632

1,978

1,064

Under
5 years,

10*
8

n

15

12

16

Hi

14

13

11

34

25

43
42
41
52
47
56
48
49
43
39
43
69

* rom Xy-
motic dis-
ease.

25
23
23
19
42
8
29
24
26
28
15
37

1841

English Rural Dis

Forty large towns

Liverpool parish. 1840-2

Bristol city "

" Rural Dis... "

11 U.Clifton.. "

" L.Clifton.. "

3,440,501
3,759,186

66,575
96,999

19
26
35
26
19
16
34

54
42
33
25
51

Massachusetts 1853-1857
15 cities in do.

above 10,000

inhabitants
"Whole State, less

15 cities
Boston. . .

Charlstown

Fall River

Springfield

Rhode Island State. 1853

, less >

i. • • • )

1,132,369 20,905

417,838

714,531

160,490
21,700
12,680
13,788

118,722

9,310

11,595

4,195
505
382
265

1,126

18

22

1"6

26
23
30
12
9

39

46

34

47
48
54
47

27

28

Confining our attention at present to the third column, that of
comparative mortality, we cannot but be surprised at the two fol-
lowing results : (1) the extreme healthiness of the country districts
generally, and of the cities in Upper Canada ; and (2) the extreme
mortality of Montreal, notwithstanding the beauty of its streets
and the substantial comfort of its mansions. It is natural to sup-
pose that some peculiar disaster that year befel the city, from
which the rest of the Province was exempt. Let us endeavour,
therefore, to see how far the same ratio holds in other years.

In the Prothonotary's office are tabulated, year by year, the
number of deaths and the increase of population by birth ; Ottawa,
Vaudreuil, Two Mountains, Terrebonne, Leinster, Berthier,
Richelieu, St. Hyacinth e, Rouville, Vercheres, Chambly, Hunting-
don, Beauharnois, Missisquoi, Stanstead, and ShefFord, containing
a population of 428,588 souls, according to the census of 1851 ;
partly rural, partly gathered into towns ; subject to the same

176

Value of Human Life in Canada,

climatal relations as Montreal, and inhabited by a people having
the same religion and habits of life. The balance of wealth and
the means of comfort are obviously in favour of the city. If Mon-
treal has more than its share of sick persons, through the attrac-
tion of the hospitals, the same is true of Quebec and Toronto.
Moreover, it is proverbial how long persons live in these establish-
ments, owing to the kind and watchful nursing of the Sisters of
Charity. And whatever increased mortality may be due to this
cause, is probably more than counte: balanced by the number of
consumptive patients who are sent out of the city into the country
to die. The following are the returns, commencing with ]851,
when first we have an accurate census of population. It will be
remembered that 1852 was the year of the great fire, and 1854
of the cholera.

MONTREAL CITY.

COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

Years,

Total

Excess of births

Total

Deaths

Total

Excess of births

Total

Deaths

population.

over deaths

deaths

per 1000
34

population.

over deaths

deaths.

per 1000

1851

57715

- 918

1978

428588

-11423

5853

14

1852

58633

-1053

1992

34

440011

_

-11093

6326

14

1853

59686

r 763

2278

38

451104

-11280

6525

14

1854

60449

—

3739

62

462384

- 8316

8731

19

1855

59986

-1028

2231

37

470700

- 8586

7869

17

1856

61014

-1262

2284

37

479286

- 9564

7184

15

1857

62276

-1438

2367

38

488850

- 9447

7380

15

1858

63714

-1495

2299

36

498297

H

- 9447)*

(7521)*

15

Total
do.

4S3473

f 4-7494
(or 16 per 1000

19168

40

3719220

( +S0156
(. or 22 per 1000

57389

15

less

1854

423024

lor 19

+7957
per 1000

15429

36

3256836

[or 2;

71840
J per 1000

48658

15

* The registration districts having been altered in 1858, these numbers are inserted
hypothetically to complete the average.

It is not pretended that these tables are precisely correct. Ab-
solute accuracy is of course unattainable in a country where there is
no compulsory system of registtation ; the yearly returns of births
and deaths being simply the records kept of religious ceremonies.
In the country districts of Upper Canada, doubtless a large num-
ber of infants are born and corpses interred without any other re-
cord than in the family b ble, if indeed in that. Still, each of the
Upper Canadian cities, where deaths at least are recorded, shows
so healthy a condition that the mortality of the country U pro-
bably not much greater than that recorded. But in Lower Cana-
da, where the religious habits of the Catholic population almost
compel resort to the font and to the cemetery, we may regard an
average of 7 years as a fair criterion of its . c anitaiy condition.

On examining the tables for the country districts, we find an
extremely rapid rate of increase, being no less than 22 per thou-

Value of Human Life in Canada. 177

sand each year. This speak? well, not only for the morality and
industry of the inhabitants, but also for the resources of the
country. The mortality, however, appears slightly on the increase,
and presents an average considerably above the mortality of the
whole province in 1851. This average is not essentially disturbed
by the cholera year. It is probable that the extra mortality of
the rural districts of Lower above Upper Canada, is due not so
much to the severity of the climate (which in Ottawa city closely
resembles that of a large part of the Montreal District) as to the
close stoving and intensely dry and heated rooms ; a habit which
would doubtless carry off a much larger number of victims, were
it not for the extreme purity of the surrounding atmosphere.

The point, however of most vital importance, for it affects the
lives of thousands, and the health of myriads, is the excessive mor-
tality of Montreal. Not only did it present in 1851 a ratio of
death greater than that of any city in Canada or New England ;
amounting to 8 per 1,000 over Boston, with its immense and
crowded Irish population; 9 per 1,000 over Quebec, with its bleak
climate, narrow streets and rock-bound courts; 20 per 1,000 over
the five cities of the West, and the same over the country district,
six times as populous, in the midst of which it raises its beautiful
domes and spires; not only so, but its mortality has been increasing;
and on the average of 7 years, even leaving out the terrible 1854,
it presents a catalogue of deaths greater than that of Liverpool (the
most unhealthy and over-crowded of English cities), in its most
unhealthy epoch, before the days of sanitary reform ; when 39,460
of its inhabitants lived in 7,892 cellars ; when 55,534 fought against
death in 1,982 courts, containing 10,092 houses, built back to
back, one third of them closed at boih ends, and at best provided
with only a surface drainage, which might be called a fuvei-bed
condensed.*

* At that time the cellars were generally from 10 to 13 feet square,
sometimes less than 6 feet high ; often with only bare earth for a floor ;
frequently with no window, and the ceiling on a level with the street.
Generally there was no other drainage than a cess-pool under a board,
which had to be ladled out ; sometimes a cess-pool of putrid matter was
allowed to incubate its fevers under a sleeping bed. Sometimes a back
cellar was used as a sleeping room, with no light or air but what could
enter through the front. Each house above contained two or more fa-
milies, among which one woman complained that they were u rather
crowded, since the people in the next corner took lodgers." The popu-
lation was huddled together to an extent nearly three times the maximum

Canadian Nat. 2 Vol. VI. No. 3.

178 Value of Human Life in Canada.

But it is not fair to leave out the cholera year from the average.
The same poisonous gases which yearly raise the mortality from
14 to 34 or even 38 per 1,000, occasionally concentrate their en-
ergies for the development of a cholera, a ship-fever or some other
pestilence. Such visitations are often looked upon as "special
providences;" but they are as natural and necessary results of
culpable neglect in sanitary matters, as is delirium tremens of
continued intoxication, or ship scurvy of unwholesome diet.
The people of Montreal must continue to lodge such visitants so long
as they make homes for them in putrid emanations ; and they
would be deprived of what is justly their own if these pestilences
were excluded, as much as if the key were turned in their market
of Bonsecours or in the parish church of Notre Dame. The fire did
not add to the mortality of the city ; it consumed the fever-beds
as well as the dwellings, and drove the people into the shelter of
the fresh air. But the cholera found a congenial atmosphere in
the swamps of Griffintown ; it not only devoured the yearly increase
of the city, but killed off 463 persons over and above as many as were
born that year ; so that for each thousand of the 60,000 inhabi-
tants of the city, sixty-two human beings perished. The grave that
year hastily swallowed up 3,739 living souls. The worst recorded
pestilence in England during the present generation was the
Famine-Fever year of 1848, in Warrington. In that year one out
of every 20 inhabitants died ; in the Montreal Cholera of 1854,
out of every fifteen citizens one was found dead ! A widow said
of the first visitation of the dreaded Asiatic pestilence in Bristol,
that it was a " blessed cholera ;" and she spoke truly, for it was
the cause of the Sanitary Reform movement, which has saved its
myriads of lives and will save its millions more. The fever in
Warrington led to the immediate cleansing of its filth ; and its
inhabitants are now yearly taxing themselves large sums for in-
vestment in the underground life insurance. The people of Mon-
treal have to this day retained their unenviable distinction as the
dwellers in the city of wealth and death ; and even last year their
Council not only refused to lay the dust of the city, but could not
draw water enough from the mighty river to allow the inhabitants
to do it at their own expense !

density of London, and consisted in great measure of the dirtiest and poor-
est of the Irish race. Such was Liverpool in 1841 ; and more unhealthy
even than this has been Montreal from 1853 to the present time ; although
for five months in every year its laboratories of pestilence lie harmless
in the safe prisons of the ice and snow 1

Value of Human Life in Canada.

179

Montreal was not the only city which was scourged by cholera.
Vaudreuil and Lachine, in its immediate vicinity, shared the
plague; but with how different results the following table will
show.

Analysis of 3 years,

Total

I

xcess of births

Total

Deaths

1853-1855.

population.

over deaths.

deaths,

per 1000.

C Lachine . .

203*76

+355

349

17

1853 } Montreal..

59686

+763

2278

38

( Vaudreuil.

22647

+609

394

17

( Lachine. .

20731

+ 53

614

29

1854 ) Montreal..

60449

—463

3739

62

( Vaudreuil.

23256

+404

556

24

C Lachine . .

20786

+328

402

19

1855 7 Montreal..

59986

+1028

2231

37

( Vaudreuil.

23660

+192

257

11

Total for 3 years.

| Lachine . .

61893

\

+736
or 12 per 1000

1365

22

1853-1855 <{ Montreal..
|

180121

\

+1228
or 7 per 1000

8248

46

I Vaudreuil.

69563

\

+1205
or 17 per 1000

1107

16

Several causes may be assigned for the frightful amount of mor-
tality which the stern facts of the burial registers assign to the city
of Montreal. The first of these is emigration. The emigrants
are said to be a peculiarly unhealthy race of people, landed on
the shore only in time to die. If that were the cause, we ought
to find the mortality of Quebec greater than Montreal, as the
poorest and most sickly are unable to proceed further ; whereas
Quebec only loses 25 to 34 who perish at Montreal. Moreover,
the earlier years, when the emigrants were most numerous, were
far more healthy than the later ones, when emigration has con-
siderably slackened, and when those who arrive are much better
cared for. The principal way in which the emigrants affect the
returns is by increasing the population. This will probably lessen
the average of later years; to what extent the coming census only
can decide. It is the custom in each city to state loosely the sup-
posed number of its inhabitants; I have not been able, however,
to find any accurate returns beyond those given above. The tide
of emigration affected Toronto fully as much as Montreal ; yet its
mortality is considerably less than half that of its older sister.
As an offset to the increase of population, it may be necessary to
say, that, in each year but one, several of the religious bodies sent
in no returns (on the average, 6 each year). It is presumed,
however, that the number of deaths thus unregistered is but small.

180 Value of Human Life in Canada.

Again, it will naturally be supposed that the free use of liquor
in Montreal is a principal cause of its extreme mortality ; the
Catholic rural population being peculiarly sober in their habits.
How great is the effect of drinking on health, the two following
classes of facts will testify. The first is from an analysis of the
books of eleven Sick Clubs in the town of Preston, Lancashire,
of which 8 were open to all, and three were restricted to teetotalers.
They are each corrected to a scale of 1,000 members.

Average of Preston
Benefit Societies.

Number of
members sick.

Temperance clubs,
General clubs,

139
233

Average time
of sickness.

3 wks. 2 ds.
7 u 4 a

Total weeks
sick.

458
1770

Cost to
the Club.

$1013
$4012

The second is extracted from the "Journal de Societe de la
Morale Chretienne" for Aug. 1847. The testimony is very accu-
rately ascertained, and gives a comparison of strong country
labourers where liquor was distributed, with sicMy inhabitants of
towns where the drink money was expended on better food.
Both parties were employed on government work. In the country
districts of Holstein, Mecklembourg, Oldenbourg, and Hanovre,
where drink was given, out of 20,952 labourers employed, 472
became sick, or one out of every 44. Whereas out of 7107
labourers from the towns of Brunswick, Oldenbourg, and the
Hanseboroughs, to whom drink was not supplied, there were only
70 sick, or one out of every 90.

But the deaths in towns do not so much result directly from
drinking, as is shown by comparing Montreal with Toronto and
Ottawa, where drinking was just as much followed, and yet the
mortality continued low. The usual effect of liquor is to weaken
the constitution of its votaries, and thus render them an easy prey
to the various forms of town disease, which abstainers are fre-
quently able to avoid or at least to throw off.

The early exposure of infants by Catholic parents, for baptismal
purposes, has also been assigned as a cause for the extreme mor-
tality of Montreal. But this cause will affect, to an equal or even
greater extent, the adjacent or rural districts; whereas, out of
every 100 deaths in Montreal, 43 are of children under 5 years of
age ; in the country only 37 : while in the Protestant cities of
Upper Canada, the mortality is much greater, varying from 47 to
56. In England the fourth column of the original table furnishes
a very exact guide to the amount of preventible mortality. In
Canada there appear anomalies which would perhaps be explained

Value of Human Life in Canada. 181

by an average of many years. Such is the enormous infantile
mortality of Quebec, amounting to 69 out of every 100 in 1851.

The same may be said with respect to the last column, which
represents the percentage of deaths arising from " xymotic" or
air-poison diseases, which, though generated even in country
places, are peculiarly destructive in towns, where they are not
instantly diluted with fresh air. In England, out of every million
persons living in the country, 3,422 die every year of these diseases;
while of the same number living in towns, 6013, or nearly double
the number, die from the same causes. The returns for Canada,
however, will have to be corrected by an average of years ; for we
find healthy Hamilton losing half of its total number from these
diseases, while Montreal loses only 15, and Kingston, with less
than half its mortality, only 8. The town-smells, therefore, have
other ways of killing-ofT those who inhale them than by infectious
complaints, ana this they do, in general, by the gradual weakening
of the constitution, through which the system is unable to bear
up against whatever disease happens to attack the sufferer.

It appears, therefore, by comparing the averages of Montreal
and its adjacent districts, even leaving out the fever year, that
there are 21 deaths in every thousand persons which might yearly
be prevented; that is, on the present population of (say) 65,000
inhabitants, the people of Montreal hill-off thirteen hundred and
sixty-Jive of their own flesh and blood every year, who would not
die did they only pay as much attention to health in the city as
they do in the country ; to say nothing of hundreds of lives more
which country and towns' people alike sacrifice on the altar of
self-indulgence and " laissez-faire.''''

But this is not all. From the returns of the Manchester Dis-
pensaries, it appears that to every case of death there are 28 cases
of sickness. These, on the average of the Preston Siek Clubs,
last 5 weeks each. Therefore the people of Montreal voluntarily
tax their health to the extent of 38,220 cases of sickness every
year, which is equal to a loss of 191,100 weeks, or 2,674 years;
that amount requiring to be taken twice over, once for tbe suffer-
ing invalid and again for the anxious nurse.

Nor is this the whole of the evil. There is a large amount of
general enfeeblement of health, which does not develope into actual
disease. This brings misery on the daily life, urges to the use of
poisonous stimulants, often leads to recklessness of conduct,
destroys the desire and even the power of amendment, and works
corruption throughout the whole fabric of society.

182 Value of Human Life in Canada.

To the work of palliating or curing diseases, 25 physicians or
other medical men honourably devote their lives, and are thank-
fully supported by the inhabitants, along with 15 vendors of drugs •
in all, an apparatus of 40 persons devoting their energies to res-
toration, besides large numbers of Hospital attendants. Sisters of
Charity, and other nurses employed in tending the sick. But to
this day the city of Montreal does not employ a single officer of
health to detect the causes of preventable disease, nor does she
make it a requirement in the men she elects to her Municipal
Council, that they should enforce those sanitary regulations which
the law empowers them to carry out.

The limits and scope of this paper do not allow me to point out
the special causes of this extreme mortality, nor the means required
for their removal. It may be sufficient to place on record an ac-
count of a court in the Petite Rue St. Antoine, which I visited in
April last in company with a Domestic Missionary. It was by no
means so bad as many parts of the Griffintown suburbs. It is to
be hoped that the time will soon come when this description will
be as great an antiquarian curiosity as the " plague-stone" in the
Warrington Museum, in a hollow of which the money was passed
through vinegar to prevent transmission of infection.

We left the street through a covered passage, treading on bricks
and pieces of wood through a mass of wet and decomposing manure
and filth. Reaching thus the small back-yard, we found it to con-
sist apparently of a widely-extended midden, consisting of disgusting
slutch and every kind of refuse, from a few inches to some feet in
thickness. On two sides, this yard was separated from two simi-
lar ones by partition fences ; on the other two it was enclosed by
dwellings. The inner house, or rather hovel, was divided into two ;
the two little rooms upstairs, inhabited by a French family at a
rent of $4 a month ; those below by two families, paying $3.50
for the liberty of being poisoned. The miserable rooms not only
got no air but what was charged with the stenches of the yard,
but just outside were several privies, too disgustingly filthy to be
used, but breeding " nast" to soak through the wooden walls and
floor of the inner room. This was filled by a family, where of
course there was sickness ; with closed door and window, so that
no air entered but what was saturated with fever-stenches. For
the upper rooms of the cottage opposite, $8 a month were paid.
On descending the stairs to reach the street, we had to cro s over
fluid matter, stepping on bricks. The lower story, for which

Value of Human Life in Canada. 183

are generally paid, was now necessarily empty, being flooded, I
will not say with water, but with liquid manure, the disgusting
emanations from which ascend through the stair case and between
the boards, into the upper story. It was by wading on bricks
through this mass of pollution that the tenant bad to obtain her
supply of water; this being the one only health-spot in the whole*
where the pipe, rising through the foetid drainage of the court?
discharges the pure water of the Ottawa for the pallid occupants.
The upper tenants had been there for 15 months, and assured me
that the yard had never been cleaned during the whole time.
And yet the authorities, who confiscate unwholesome meat when
offered in the shambles, allow the use of these unwholesome dens
to be freely sold to those whose ignorance or poverty keeps them
from remonstrance; and men are found willing to draw $21.50 a
month, as payment for the privilege of inhaling poison, in places
where no right-thinking man would keep his horse, scarcely his
pig; and where he would not live himself (or rather die) for any
amount of money.

During the long months of winter, all injurious emanations are
happily frozen up, like the fabled tunes blown into Munchausen's
horn. But when the spring thaw comes, the whole mass of cor-
ruption, which has been accumulating on the surface and among
the snow, is set free ; not only sinking into the unpaved back
yards, and there laying by a deep store of pollution to rise up at
the bidding of the summer sun, in the form of fever or cholera ;
but running into and around the dwellings, soaking into the floors,
and sponged up by the timber walls, where the reeking colour,
premonitory of disease, is hidden behind some tawdry paper ; and
the heedless victim of ignorance, generally also of intemperance,
hires the poisoned coffin in which his wife and little ones are con-
strained to dwell.

In the more healthy parts of the city, the winter manure is dis-
lodged by the melting snow and precipitated on the solid matter.
As the streets rapidly dry, fine dust is formed in immense masses;
and while the poor below are wading on bricks through the liquid
stench -bowls,* the gentry are inhaling similar pollutions in the
form of impalpable and perceptible dust. It is evident that both

• The myriads of flies of which the inhabitants complain, are the ne-
cessary result of the putrid refuse. In the present state of the city, they
act as nature's scavangers, and should be reckoned among the greatest
blessings.

184 Value of Human Life in Canada,

streets and yards should be cleared as soon as ever the substance
is soft enough to be removed ; that the liquid manure, instead of
running to waste in the river, should be employed to fertilize the
land ; that all back yards not used for cultivation, should be paved
with brick or stone ; that houses should be drained with some
other material than wooden troughs ; that the plan of fixing frame
houses on wooden legs over swamps should be expressly prevented ;
and that a complete system of sewerage should be provided for the
poorer, far more than even for the wealthier portions of the com-
munity.

The mere fact of sewering and cleansing 20 streets in Manches.
ter, inhabited by 3,500 persons, reduced the mortality from 31 to
25 per 1,000 ; that is, prevented 21 deaths and 588 cases of sick-
ness in 7 months. In Windmill Court, London, there were 41
cases of sickness in 7 months. The landlord paved and sewered
it, and supplied it with water ; and in the same space of time after-
wards, there were only 2 cases. He did it at his own expense,
and " made a good thing of it." — When the Manchester Council
swept their streets by machine every day, they found that the
roads scarcely ever needed repair. In Aberdeen and Perth, the
expense of the similar daily cleansing was more than covered by
the sale of the manure.

What is poison to man is food to the plant. One pound of
urine contains all the elements necessary for one pound of wheat.
The fcecal matter of two adults is sufficient manure to raise an
acre of corn or pease ; or that of one man will produce an acre of
turnips, if the green matter is returned to the soil. The value of
manure in Flanders is $9-25 per man. Land near Edinburgh,
which used to let for only $15 per acre, now fetches from $100 to
$200 per annum, simply from being irrigated with town refuse.
And in the town of Rugby, the system of drainage is so complete
that whatever is deposited in the dwelling in the morning, by noon
is spread over the fields in a minute state of division, before de-
composition has time to develope its poisonous stench.

As the cost of sanitary measures is generally the greatest ob-
stacle to their adoption, it may be well to inquire whether their
neglect is not still more costly. The following is an attempt to
exhibit the —

Value of Human Life in Canada. 185

ANNUAL PECUNIARY LOSS TO THE CITY OF MONTREAL, RESULTING FROM

11 LAISSEZ FAIRE."

Value of manure, now run to waste or breeding sickness, on

65,000 inhabitants, besides animals, say at $3, $195,000

Loss from 191,100 weeks of preventible sickness, at $3 per week, . 573,300

Cost of 1,365 funerals at $15 each, 20,475

Supposed pecuniary value of 1,365 lives ; estimating a Free
Canadian simply as property, at Elihu Burritt's tariff of

$300 per head, 409,500

Maintenance of orphans, &c, say 1,725

Total, $1,200,000

To which ought to be added an indefinite amount for injury to stocks
of goods, dress, furniture, &c, resulting from dirt and dust.

These and similar facts prove that, however expensive sanitary
reform may be, the present system is far more so ; and that how-
ever difficult it may be to cleanse the Augean stables in the back
yards of Montreal, it is the duty of the Council to see that the
wages of death are no longer wrung from the hard earnings of the
poor, but that all who undertake to let houses shall be compelled
to put them and their surroundings into a condition favourable to
health and life.

If a Statistical Society were formed to collect and verify infor-
mation on this and other social subjects, it might be able to lay
important facts before the governing bodies ; and might point out
the causes of error in the present returns, with a view to their cor-
rection in the forthcoming census. The English " Health of Towns
Associations" have also been extremely useful, (1) in making
reports of the actual condition of their respective localities, by
visiting from house to house ; (2) in diffusing information among
the masses of the people by free lectures and plainly written tracts ;
and (3) in watching and acting upon city officials and owners of
pioperty, in a way which private individuals hesitate to do.

When Edwin Chadwick, Esq., the first mover of sanitary reform
in England, visited the Exhibition of Industry in Paris, every op-
portunity was offered to the deputation from the Society of Arts,
of which he was a member, to see the notabilia of that magnificent
capital. The Emperor afterwards asked him what were his im-
pressions of the city. He replied by giving Louis Napoleon a
half-hour's disquisition on the sanitary condition of Paris, and the
necessary steps to be taken for its immediate improvement. The
courtiers were filled with indignation ; His Majesty answered by

186 On a Specimen of

a smile. — In the same way I have endeavoured to show my grate-
ful appreciation of the kindness of the Canadian people, by apply-
ing the knowledge gained in the old country to the altered con-
ditions of the new, and shall be rejoiced indeed if what has been
written, strongly, it may be, but calmly and advisedly, should be
received, neither with indignation nor with smiles, but with a de-
termination to amend the laws of disease and death, by which the
inhabitants of Montreal have thus far been governed. Let the
Queen City of the North, that sits enthroned on the Royal Mount,
with for her footstool the River of Freedom, her breast adorned
with princely mansions, her jewels of colleges and cathedrals
her boast of commerce and of wealth, be clothed with the white
robe of Health, pure as her winter's snows, and crowned with, the
diadem of Life, bright as her summer's sun, so that her future
may fulfil the prediction of the Prophet, —

" My people shall not labour in vain,

" Nor bring forth children for early death.

11 No longer shall there be an infant of days,

" Nor an old man that hath, not fulfilled his time :

" For he that dieth at a hundred years shall die a youth,

" And the sinner dying at a hundred years shall be held accursed.

M They shall not build, and another inhabit ;

u They shall not plant, and another eat :

" For as the days of a tree shall be the days of my people ;

" Yea, long shall they enjoy the works of their hands."

Is. lxv. 20-23.
Boston, May 13, 1859.

ARTICLE XIV. — On a specimen of Aboriginal Pottery in the
Museum of the Natural History Society of Montreal.

(Read before the Natural History Society.)

Among other treasures of this Society recently exposed to view
by the re-arrangement of the collection in the new building of the
Society, is a remarkably perfect earthen vessel of Indian work-
manship, presented by Mr. H. T. Goslin of Clarendon, Pontiac
county, through the Lord Bishop of Montreal ; and which,
but for the confusion incident to the removal of the Mu-
seum, would have been noticed in this journal some time since.
It was found, along with another of similar form and dimensions,
under a flat stone, in a rudely walled space prepared for the ves-
sels, which were placed mouth to mouth, and contained only a

Ancient Pottery. 187

small quantity of brownish powder. No other aboriginal remains
were found with them, nor anything to indicate the probable pur-
pose of their interment. The precise circumstances in which
they were found were thus communicated by Mr. Goslin to the
Society.

" The urn was found on lot No. 4 in the 8th range of lots in
this township (Clarendon). A number of years since, when Mr.
Seaman, the owner of the farm, was clearing the land, his atten-
tion was attracted by a singular wall or mound of stone. He saw
a part of the urns (which were placed vertically), and at first
supposed it was a stone carved in that form, and paid no further
attention to it till July, 1856, when he went to it, and removing
a part of the wall, found the urns. They were placed vertically?
the mouths being joined, and the lower one filled with earthy
matter, a part of which is sent with the urn. Having heard of
the affair, I visited the spot, and hoping to make further disco-
veries, obtained help, and with levers removed the large stone
which was over the urns. We found beneath it a wall regularly
laid, though not cemented, enclosing a space 8 feet by 6. The
wall was about 5 feet high ; 3 feet below and 2 feet above the
surface, and open at a part of the west side. As the stone which
covered it had been broken by some means, probably by the
action of fire, I could not ascertain its exact dimensions. That
part which I measured was of an irregular figure, about 6 feet 8
in. in length, 4 or 4£ feet in breadth, and from 1£ to 3 feet in
thickness. Evidence of the antiquity of the structure is afforded
by the fact that since it was built a maple tree had grown to the
size of about 20 inches in diameter, decayed, and fallen ; its roots,
together with those of several smaller trees and shrubs, having
extended over the wall. The soil on that part of the wall at the
west side was about 10 inches deep."

The form of the urn is represented in the accompanying
wood cut. The material is a fine reddish felspathic clay with
many grains of quartz and films of mica; the whole being
apparently the product of the decomposition of granite, and,
independently of the coarse particles intermixed, an excellent
material for terra cotta. The form is as regular as if moulded
by the potter's wheel, and is not deficient in symmetry. The
general surface is smooth, with very fine revolving lines, produced
by the instrument used to give form and finish to the exterior.
The thickness at the mouth is T \ ths of an inch : the circum-

188

On a Specimen of

ference of the mouth outside 24 inches, that of the narrowest
part of the neck 23 inches, that of the widest part of the swell

35 inches. The depth within is 11 inches, or very nearly equal to
the greatest transvere diameter. The edge or lip of the mouth
is slightly bevelled outward and neatly marked with, radiating
sharp furrows. A band or fillet similarly marked, and f of an
inch in depth surrounds the mouth, and its sameness is agreeably
broken by an interrupted horizontal furrow running round the
middle of the fillet. A less distinct row of vertical furrows runs
round the upper part of the swell. All these ornamental mark-
ings are very carefully and cleanly cut, and the whole aspect of
the vessel bespeaks taste and skill in the workman, and indeed,
compares favourably in these respects with some Roman cinerary
urns, that stand on the same shelf, or with the ordinary pottery
of our own time.

The brown powder found in the vessel, appears to be the
remains of some coarse farinaceous substance, probably Indian
meal, or pounded parched com.

In its form and ornament this vessel is of the same type with
the Indian pottery of all parts of North America ; as for example
with that found on the sites of Indian villages in the state of
New York, and in the western mounds, and still in use among
the Mandans and other nations of the west. Anterior to Euro-
pean colonization, the Indian tribes appear pretty generally to
have made coarse pottery, without the aid of the potter's wheel*
but the art disappeared rapidly from most of the tribes, on the
introduction of metallic vessels. " Upon the site of every Indian
town," says Squier,* " as also within every ancient enclosure,

♦Aboriginal Monuments of New York (Smithsonian Contributions).

Ancient Pottery. 189

fragments of pottery occur in great abundance. It is rarely,
however, that any entire vessels are recovered. Those which have
been found, are for the most part gourd-shaped, with round bot-
toms and having little protuberances near the rim, or often a deep
groove by which they could be suspended. A few cases have
been known in which this form was modified and the bottoms
made sufficiently flat to retain the vessel in an upright position,
fragments found in Jefferson County, seem to indicate that
occasionally the vessels were moulded in forms nearly square, but
with rounded angles.* The usual size was from one to four
quarts ; but some must have contained not less than twelve to
fourteen quarts. In general there was no attempt at ornament ;
but sometimes the exterior of the pots and vases were elaborately
if not tastefully ornamented with dots and lines, which seem to
have been formed in a very rude manner with a pointed stick or
sharpened bone. Bones which appear to have been adapted for
this purpose are often found. After the commencement of Euro-
pean intercourse, kettles and vessels of iron, copper, brass, and
tin, quickly superseded the productions of the primitive potter,
whose art at once fell into disuse." These vessels were not only
used for culinary and domestic purposes, but were sometimes
buried with the dead, containing probably articles of food for
their use in the spirit w T orld ; and, as Charlevoix mentions offerings
of sagamatie or pounded parched corn to the dead, this may
have been the substance contained in the Clarendon vases, which
may have been buried, either as an offering of this kind, or as a
store of provision for the living. It may appear adverse to the
former supposition, that vessels placed with the dead were usually
rendered unserviceable, a fact observed in Canada and Oregon,
and of which the writer once met with an instance in Nova Scotia.
In other instances, however, uninjured vessels are known to have
been deposited in this way. \

The modern manufacture of pottery among the Mandans is
thus described by Catlin. "I spoke also of the earthen dishes or
bowls in which these viands were served out ; they are a familiar
part of the culinary furniture of every Mandan lodge, and are
manufactured by the women of this tribe in great quantities, and

•There is a vase with a square mouth, in the collection of the
Natural History Society.

t Lapham, Antiquities of Wisconsin (Smithsonian Contributions),
p. 29.

190 Indians of McKenzie River District.

modelled into a thousand forms and tastes. They are made by
the hands of the women from a tough black clay, and baked in
kilns which are made for the purpose, and are nearly equal in
hardness to our own manufacture of pottery ; though they have
not yet got the art of glazing, which would be to them a most
valuable secret. They make them so strong and serviceable,
however, that they hang them over the fire as we do our own
pots, and boil their meat in them with perfect success. I have
seen some few specimens of such manufacture, which have been
dug up in Indian mounds and tombs in the northern and middle
states, placed in our eastern museums, and looked upon as a great
wonder ; when here this novelty is at once done away with, and
the whole mystery, where women can be seen handling and using
them by hundreds, and they can be seen every day in the sum-
mer also, moulding them into many fanciful forms, and passing
them through the kiln where they are hardened." * Catlin does
not mention the shape of these vessels ; but they appear inciden-
tally in several of his plates, and would seem to be often of the
form of that referred to in these notes, though sometimes in that
of flat bowls.

The interesting points in connection with this and other exam-
ples of Indian pottery, are, the general prevalence of the art even
among the rudest tribes, its rapid disappearance on the introduc-
tion by commerce of better vessels, the similarity in form of
these vases to those of most ancient nations and to the general
forms of modern pottery, the accuracy of contour bestowed on them
without the potter's wheel, and the selection of a material which
has in all countries approved itself as the best suited for the pur-
poses of the potter. These points are, I think, of sufficient ethno-
logical interest to entitle this donation to a short notice in the

proceedings of the Society.

J. w. D.

ARTICLE XV. — On the Indian Tribes of McKenzie River Dis-
trict and the Arctic Coast ; from a Correspondent.

(Presented to the Natural History Society.)

This sketch of the language and manners of Chipewyan tribes,
may be divided into three heads : 1st. the Geographical Distri-
bution ; 2nd. the various Branches of which the tribes are com-
posed ; and 3rd. an account of other tribes of different origin to be
found in the McKenzie River District.

•American Indians, vol. 1, p. 116, and plate 46.

Indians of McKenzie River District. 191

The Chipewyans may be considered the purest stock, and call
themselves Tonish or Dimish, (the People.) They are scattered
over a large and important portion of North America, either
themselves or their off-shoots. They are to be found in greater
or lesser numbers from about 95° west longitude, to the Rocky
Mountains, and from about 55° of lat. to the Arctic circle. By
this statement I do not mean to say that they inhabit so extensive
a tract of country, but merely that they are to be met with be-
tween these extremes. The most eastern of the H.B. posts to which
they resort for purposes of trade is Churchill on Hudson's Bay,
which they reach by descending the English River. I do not
suppose they winter any where in the vicinity of the Great coast
line, nor that they have much intercourse with the Esquimaux,
what intercourse does exist however, is of a friendly character.
On the south they are not met with below Isle-a-la-Crosse. About
Lesser Slave Lake, and at St. Johns on the Upper waters of Peace
River, Crees are the present inhabitants. The Lesser Slave Lake
country, from its source evidently belonged at some former
period to the Chipewyans, as the usual name given to numbers of
this tribe is slaves, but they not being by any means so warlike
as their opponents, have been in all probability beaten back
by the superior arms and energy of the Cree nation. I have,
heard that one of the plain tribes the Cirsees was a Chipewyan
off-shoot, and resemblance of language and general reports render
this very propable. To the westward, the Chipewyan is found
along Peace River, in the Beaver tribe, at Fort au Levid in the
Slave tribe, and along the McKenzie in Slave and Stare tribes as
far north as the Arctic circle, and the Bloody Fall on the Copper-
mine River.

The Chipewyan nation is bounded by the Crees to the south-
ward, this latter people have penetrated though in small numbers
to Athabasca Lake, and hunt in common with the Chipewyans the
country along the Athabasca and English Rivers, and that lying
between Peace River and Lesser Slave Lake. Although enemies
formerly, they are now on intimate and friendly terms. To the
eastward the intercourse of the Chipewyan with the Esquimaux
is but trifling. A wide and barren tract of country intervenes
between their hunting grounds and the coast, while the best
means of water communication, the Great Fish River, is very
dangerous. The Stare Indians indeed meet with the Esquimaux
in an amicable manner on the Anderson river, a stream lately dis-

192 Indians of McKenzie River District.

covered and surveyed by Mr. Roderick Ross McFarlane, lying to
the eastward of Fort George Hope, and flowing into Liverpool
Bay. To the northward and westward they fall in with the Lou-
cheux, or Kutching, and are on the best understanding with them,
although these people speak an entirely different tongue, are dis-
tinguishable in features, and distinct in their superstitions and
habits of life. On the western side an intermixture takes place
with the Nahannies, Siccanees, Manocies, Monde and other tribes
of different names, but most likely all of cognate race with the
Chipewyar.s themselves.

The known branches into which the Chipewyan race has divi-
ded itself are as follows : 1st. the Chipewyans of English River,
Athabasca and Great Slave Lake ; 2nd. the Beaver Indians of
Peace River ; 3rd. the Caribou Eaters and Yellow Knives of
Athabasca and Great Slave Lake ; 4th. the Dog Ribs of Great
Slave Lake and Martin Lake ; 5th. the Slaves of Great Slave Lake
and the McKenzie and Levid Rivers ; 6th. the Hare Indians of
McKenzie River and Bear's Lake, all of which will be passed
separately and briefly in review.

1st. The Chipewyans inhabit the south east portion of the
territory already mentioned, and are the most numerous family of
their race. The name Chipewyan or Chipawyan is apparently
one given by the Crees, meaning (Chipaw), pointed and (wyan)
shirts. If this be actually its derivation, it would appear that the
Chipewyan tribes wore shirts or tunics of the same shape as the
Loucheux dress at some former period. This shape is now never
seen among them. The name among themselves is the rather
grandiloquent one of Dimish, or The People. They are in gene-
ral of middle-size and well proportioned, the face flat with high
cheek bones, giving a pear-like appearance to the head. Their
hair is strong and coarse, but they have neither beard nor whiskers ;
the hands and feet are small and well made. For an aboriginal
people their character is not bad, for although selfish and grasping
to the utmost degree, they are honest and far from blood-thirsty.
They are all confirmed liars, and they treat their women more as
slaves than companions. Morality among them is at a low ebb.
Polygamy though not common exists, and, although very jealous
of their wives, chastity in unmarried females is scarcely considered
a virtue among them. A Roman Catholic Mission has been
for several years established among this tribe, which doubtless
has had some effect, in preserving the outward decencies of mo-

Indians of McKenzie River District. 193

rality among its converts. Their Christianity is very impure, as
they have mixed up many of their superstitions with the ceremo-
nies of that Church. Fancy their sending letters to God, when
any one dies, using the coffin as the post office !

2nd. The Beaver Indians, whose dialect is farther removed from
the Chipewyans than that of any of the other branches, reside in
the country along both sides of Peace River, as far as the upper
waters of Hay River on one hand, and Lesser Slave Lake on the
other, from just below Fort Vermilion to the Rocky Mountains.
They are a bolder and braver race than the others, honest and hos-
pitable, indeed superior in most points to the Chipewyans, whom
they much resemble in features, customs, and moral character, as
well as in the treatment of the softer sex. Thev live as Nomades,
possess houses, and subsist principally on the products of the chase.
They are good workers in iron, and fabricate very neatly formed
spears and crooked knives from worn out files.

3rd. To the northward and eastward of the Fond du Lac of
Athabasca, as far as to the north end of Great Slave Lake, Lake
Aylmer, and the east side of Yellow Knife, (Copper Mine) River,
dwell the Caribou Eaters or Yellow Knives, who are the same
tribe under two designations. They are a largo and stout race of
men, fairer and better featured than the Chipewyans, especially
the women, who are much prettier. This may arise from the su-
perior quantity and quality of their nutriment. Their language
is almost pure Chipewyan ; they bear the worst character of anv
of the cognate race. Their notions of morality, honesty and
veracity are very lax. Their location is in the low woods border-
ing on the barren grounds, at which latter they meet every
summer for the Reindeer hunt, this animal being their great sup-
port. On its flesh they subsist, its skin affords them clothing,
its sinews thread, and the raw hide when cut up into small lines
like cat-gut, is used by them sometimes as a substitute for twine
in the formation of nets. Though formerly at war with the Es-
quimaux residing at the outlet of Back's River, there is now no
hostile intercourse between them, and the Yellow Knives seldom
proceed further coastwise than the Head waters of the before
mentioned river.

4th. Adjoining the Yellow Knives are the Dog Ribs, (Kloy
Dimish), whose lands extend from Yellow Knife River to the
southeast side of the Bear Lake, and to about midway between
Martin Lake and the McKenzie River. In the latter part they
Canad. Nat. 3 Vol. IV. No. 3.

194 Indians of McKenzic River District.

are much intermingled with the Slaves, from whom they can
scarcely be distinguished, except by being of large stature, and
possessing a thick stuttering and disagreeable manner of enun-
ciation. They are comparatively very numerous, l ; ving principally
like the Yellow Knives upon the Reindeer which abound in their
country, and like that tribe clad much in skin dresses. Like all
the Slave tribes in contradistinction to the Beaver Indians, Chipe-
wvans, and Yellow Knives forming the Chipewyan division, these
people are kind in their treatment of their women and dogs, and
have the custom universal in all their race of dropping their ori-
ginal name upon the birth of a child. They are then only styled
the father of so and so. But the Kloy Dimish go farther still,
they change their name after the birth of every child, and an un-
married man is called the father of his favorite dog if he have one.

5th. The Slave Indians inhabit the tract between the west end
of Great Slave Lake to below Fort Norman, extending up the
Liards on one side and to Bear Lake on the other. At Fort aux
Liards there is in this tribe a great mixture of Beaver race, to the
westward of the McKenzie of the Siccanee and Nohanney. They
are a well disposed and peaceable race, their life is a hard one ' r
they subsist on hares, fish and deer, and often have great difficulty
in obtaining the means of living. Notwithstanding this, a Slave
would sooner starve than eat a piece of a dog or mink, indeed he
will not skin the latter animal when captured in his traps, although
its pelt is a valuable article of barter. They manufacture twine
for nets out of the bark of a species of Willow, and dishes that hold
water out of its plaited roots, more durable than from Birch bark.

6th. The Hare Indians reside in the country around Fort Good
Hope on the McKenzie to beyond the arctic circle where they
come in contact with the Loucheux, Quarrelers, or Kootchin, with
whom by intermarriage they have formed the tribe of Loucheux
Batards. They are a stout thickset race, subsisting partly on fish
partly on Reindeer. There is little difference in the language
from that of the Slaves,, and their dress and customs are the same.
With the Esquimaux of the newly discoverd Anderson River,
they are on good terms. This tribe is not numerous, having
perished in large numbers from starvation in 1841, when many
sad scenes occurred. Fmm long intercourse with the whites, for
whom they have great respect and affection, most of the supersti-
tions and customs of these tribes are extinct. Their idea either of
the formation of the world or the deluge is that a muskrat dived

9

Indians of McKenzie River District. 195

to the bottom of what was then all water, and brought up some
earth which was moulded into consistency by the Beaver. The
Loucheux entertain the same tradition in a slightly modified form.
Chipewyans have ideas of a good and evil principle, but their
ador. tion if it may be so called is paid to the latter, and consists
of rude gesticulations, singing, and conjurations for the benefit of
the sick, and called Nitch or Medicine. Their places of interment
are rude cages or caches of logs placed on the surface of the ground,
in which the body is deposited, wrapped in a blanket or moose skin,
while the relatives destroy their property and cut their hair in
sign of mourning. Their songs are unmusical and generally ac-
companied by drumming on a kind of tambourine, forming the
usual Orchestra for their dances. The latter consist of ungainly
leapings in a circle, commonly around the small fire used
to light their pipes, and in them women are permitted to
join. Moose-nose and hearts of animals, as well as the heads, are
not allowed to be eaten by women or dogs, from a superstition that
if such occurred the hunters would lose their skill. Among the
Slaves of the valley of McKenzie, rabbits are the principal food.
When these fail suddenly as they generally do, the natives fancy
that they mount by the trees into heaven, and when they reappear,
that they return by the same path. The moral character as well
as the worldly condition of these tribes has been much improved
by the mild and impartial sway of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Polygamy as well as incest, is now of very rare occurrence. In-
testine wars and murders are unknown, while infanticide, formerly
so prevalent, has become almost a tradit'on. One point of their
customs which I have overlooked, may here be mentioned. Their
manner of personal combat is to catch each other by their long
hair, and twist about until one falls down. Although this is in
general a most harmless way of settling a dispute, instances have
occurred of dislocation of the neck in the affray. Quarrels arise
commonly about women, and the fair one becomes the prize of
the conqueror.

A Protestant Mission of the church of England pursuasion is
about to be established by the Church Missionary Society at Fort
Simpson on the McKenzie River, for the Slave communities, which
will doubtless improve in a high degree the religious notions and
moral character of this interesting and inoffensive people.

The other tribes inhabiting the McKenzie River district are 1st
the Siccanees; 2nd. the Nahannies or Mountain Indians; 3rd. the
Loucheux or Kutchin ; 4th. the Esquimaux.

196 Indians of MrKenzie River District.

1st. The Siccanees arc a tolerably numerous tribe. In this
district they resort to Forts Liards and Selkirk for purposes of trade
and inhabit the country between the Liards and the head waters
of Peace River among the Rocky Mountains entering into New
Caledonia. If they speak Chipewyan, their dialect is a very cor-
rupt one. In disposition they resemble the Beaver Indians, and
they are generally of good stature.

2nd. The Nahannies live to the northward of the Siccanees,
about the head waters of the Liards Rivers, Francis Lake and the
Pelly River and westward across the mountains to the Pacific
In appearance they resemble the Slaves.

3rd. The Loucheux are an exceedingly numerous and powerful
people, if the various tribes of them inhabiting Russian America
be taken into consideration. They occupy the northern waters of
the McKenzie from below Fort Good Hope and Point Separation,
where they meet the Esquimaux, as well as Peels River. They
are found across the Rocky Mountains on the Rat River, on the
Youcan or Kutchpark, and on the lower Pelly, in fact they people
the greater part of the interior of Russian America.

In appearance they are bolder featured than the Slaves, as
well as of larger stature. Their disposition is blood-thirsty, and
independant, resembling a good deal that of the plain tribes. In
the treatment of women they are harsh, and female infanticide is
is not uncommon among them. Polygamy is prevalent, as well
as divorce for trifling misunderstandings. The Peels River Lou-
cheux put their dead on scaffolds, those of the westward burn
them, and much property is destroyed upon the death of a chief.
A strong belief in the powers of Medicine men is universal
among the Youcan tribes, no Indian dies by natural death,
but he is killed by the conjuration of another at some distance,
and this superstition is the cause of much bloodshed among them.
The Peels River branch is at war with the Esquimaux. They
were formerly a very numerous people, but war and disease have
sadly reduced them. Several treaties have been patched up between
these hostile nations by the Hudson's Bay Company, but only to
be broken, and the avenging of fresh murders keeps up an unbroken
line of deadly fueds. Having had a trading intercourse for several
years with the Company's Post at Peels River, these people have
become milder and much more tractable than their unsophisti-
cated brethren on the Youcan.

The dress of the Loucheux or Kutchins is a peculiar one, it

Natural History of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 197

consists of a tunic or shirt of leather coming to a point in the
skirt both behind and before, ornamented with quills, fringes and
beads. The trousers and shoes are of one piece, and are also
garnished. Men and women are clad in like fashion in trousers.
4th. The Esquimaux as far as we know of them are very nume-
rous. At the points with which we are acquainted, their coast
line extends inland to below Point Separation on the McKenzie,
the Bloody Fall on the Copper mine River, and the confluence of
the Great fish with the Mclnlay Rivers. They are a more power-
ful, braver and energetic race than the Indians. Their com-
plexion in truth is fair, and some of their women are reported as
absolutely beautiful.

ARTICLE VI.— On the Natural History of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence, and the distribution of the Mollusca of Eastern
Canada. By Robert Bell, jr.

Having been employed by Sir W. E. Logan to assist Mr. Ri-
chardson in his geological expl > rations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence
during the summer of 1858, and at the same time to collect as
many specimens as possible, to illustrate the natural history of
that part of the Province,* the following lists, prepared bv his
directions, contain a brief summary of my observations, together
with numerous facts regarding the distribution of the Mollusca in
other parts of the country.

The district explored is that part of the Province below Quebec
which is bounded on the north-west bv the St. Lawrence, < ast bv
the Gulf, and south-east by the Bay of Chaleurs and Ristigouche
River, and is chiefly comprised in the counties of Rimouski, Gaspe?
and Bonaventure. By referring to a map of the Province the
localities mentioned in this article will be readily found, the-
ater number of them being situated on the south-east side of
the St. Lawrence, between Quebec and G ,spe. In these lists I
U'ive the names of all the localities at which each species was
found when not generally diffused, from which some inferences
may be drawn in regard to their geographical distribution ; and I
must here acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. DTJrban of the

* During the summer of 1857, I accompanied the same party on an
expedition to the Gulf, and some observations which I then made on the
natural history of the country through which we passed are published
in the Report of Progress for that year.

198 Natural History of the

Geological Survey, who most kindly furnished me with a list o l
the Birds, and drew up the accompanying Catalogues of Ooleop
Wa, Lepidoptera, and Plants.

VERTEBRATA.
MAMMALIA.

Vespertilio subula*us (Say's Bat). — Numerous in the vallies of
the Ristigouche and Matapedia Rivers. I killed one of them with
my fishing rod, which in its eagerness to take the bait from my
hook, did not cease to fly after it, till it met with its death.

Sorex Forsteri (Forster's Shrew Mouse). — Procured two spe-
cimens; said by the Indians to be very abundant.

Ursus Americanus (The Black Bear). — Not uncommon; there
are two varieties in the district, one all black, and the other, which
is said to be more ferocious, black with a white spot on the breast*
The fur of the Gaspe bears is of a highly superior quality.

Mustela martes (The Pine Martin). — The Indians bring home
from their winter hunts, more of the skins of these animals than
of any other.

M. vison (The Mink). — Ranks next to the marten in its impor-
tance to the Indian hunter.

M. vulgaris (The Common Weasel). — Abundant.

M. Canadensis (The Fisher). — Does not seem to be very abuu-
dant, but the Indians always bring to market a few of their skins
when they return from their hunts.

Mephitis Americana (The Skunk). — Not uncommon, and some-
times killed by hunters for its skin, which is used for making
sleigh robes.

Lutra Canadensis (The Canada Otter). — Very abundant along
every stream. One of our Indians told me that he once secured
three otters of large size, with one shot. He said, that after watch-
ing for them some time, they all came up together through a
hole in the ice, when he aimed at the middle one and killed it on
the spot, only a few grains of shot striking the other two, who
immediately set on one another, as though mutually supposing
each other to be the cause of their pain, and during the combat
he dispatched them both with his tomahawk.

Canis lupus (The Common Wolf). — I w r as informed by the
Indians that the wolf does not come farther north than the St. John
River, where they are sometimes seen in small parks, and destroy
the young moose.

Gulf of St. Lawrence. 199

C. fulvus (The American Fox). — Three varieties of the fox,
the black, silver- grey and yellow, exist thoughout the district.

Lynx Canadensis (The Loup-cervier or Canada Lynx) —
Abundant, and much sought after by the hunters.

Phoca — ? (Seal). — A seal generally of a mottled grey colour,
ascends the St. Lawrence beyond Cacouna. Farther down the
river, we sometimes saw, during summer, quite a number of them
rwimming together.

Castor fiber (The Beaver). — Formerly when the fur of the
beaver brought such a high price, they were very much hunted
in this part of the country, but since it has fallen to less than
quarter of what it was, the Indians do not kill them, except when
an opportunity of shooting one accidentally falls in their way, and
they consequently now re-occupy, often in great numbers, the
places which they had long deserted.

Fiber zibethicus (The Musk-Rat. ) — This animal, so abundant
in all other parts of Canada, is likewise so, in the lakes and quiet
streams of our present district.

Mus musculus (The Common Mouse) — Infests barns in the
summer time.

Pteromys volucella (The Common Flying-Squirrel). — Rare.

Sciurus {Tamias) Lysteri (The Chip-inunk). — Rare also.

S. Hudsonius (The Red Squirrel). — Abundant throughout the
whole district.

Hystrix pilosus (dorsata) (The Canada Porcupine) — Appears
to be much more abundant in the north-eastern part of the dis-
trict (Gaspe) than in the counties of Rimouski, or Bonaventure.
They become light grey or almost white when very old, but are
said to be the same colour all the year round.

Lopus Americaaus (The American Hare). — iNot withstanding
its numerous enemies, is probably the most abundant quadruped
in the wo ds.

Cervus alces (The Moose Deer or Elk). — For the last few y>ars
most of the hunters have devoted their time to killing the moose
simply for the sake of their skins, which now command a higher
price than formerly, and this they do at any seas<»n of the ye
which suits their own convenience. We were informed, that a
party of these hunters had procured 300 >kins the previous winter,
and that another party of only three Indians had killed during
the same season between 90 and 100 on one expedition, as many
as six sometimes falling a prey to them in one day, yet still these
noble animals roam in vast numbers over the district.

200 Natural History oj the

C. tarandus (The Caribou). — Very numerous about the Sbick
Shook Mountains. Some of our party, who were on the extensive
flat top of Mount Albert, one of this range, reported that there,
an area of great extent was strewn with vast quantities of
fragments of their horns, most of which gave evidence of great
antiquity.

AVES.

Halicetus leucocephalus, Linn. (Bald Eagle). — Immature indi-
viduals frequently seen from Green Island to Martin River, in
June and July, and an adult on the Ristigouche, August 31st»
At St. Anne, on June l*7th, I saw one of this species flying off
with a long string of seaweed entangled in its claws, and on the
30ih at the same locality I observed a large eagle, which I took
to be this species, and which, after hovering about for some time,
dashed into the water at the mouth of the river, with such velo-
city that it entirely disappeared beneath the surface for some
seconds, rising again with a fish of considerable size, apparently
of the species commonly called the Sea Toad (CottusGramlandicus)
and flew off with it towards the mountains inland. I picked up
wing-feathers of this species on several occasions on the shore,
and at Green Island and Marcouiu River I was shown wings of
specimens which had been shot at those places.

Astur fuseus, Gmel. (Sharp-shinned Hawk). — Two specimens
observed at Capuchin, about the clearings, in August.

Surnia funerea, Gmel. (Hawk Owl). — When at Green Island I
was shown the head and wings of a specimen which was shot
there about the middle of October.

Syrnium nebulosum, Gmel. (Barred Owl). — Occurred on the
Marcouin River.

Chordeiles Virginianus, Briss. (Night jar, Mosquito Hawk). —
Observed at Chatte River June 18th, Ste. Anne, June 28th to July
17th, and at the mouth of the Matapedia August 28th. At Ste. Anne
July 1 7th, I was shown the Qgg^> of this species deposited on the
bare ground without any attempt at a nest. The parent bird was
sitting on them, and although very frequently disturbed for some
davs, and her eggs much handled, one having been even cracked,
she made no attemot to remove them, as this bird is said to do on
similar occasions, and she invariably returned to the nest, as soon
as we left the spot, propablv be ause the eggs were nearly hatched.
She appeared incommoded by the day-light, and permitted us to
approach very closely before she took to flight.

Gulf of St. Lawrence. 201

Hirundo bicolor, Vieill. (White-bellied Swallow). — Very abun-
dant at Cape Chatte and Ste. Anne, June 28th and 30th, and at
Martin River July 20th. This species breeds in h >les in decayed
trees standing on clearings, in vast numbers at the above locali-
ties.

Hirundo f aha, Vieill. (Cliff Swallow). — Numerous at Metis, at
the beginning f June.

Hirundo rustica, Linn. (P>arn Swallow). — Abundant at Trois
Pistoles, where they were building their nests under the eaves of
a store, May 30th, also observed at Metis, June 10th, and near
Long Point, June 15th.

Hirundo riparia, Linn. (Sand Martin). — A few observed mak-
ing holes in a sand cliff on the banks of the river at Ste. Anne,
June 28th.

Sylvicola coronata, Lath. (Yellow-crowned Warbler.) — One
<hot at Green Island Village, May 25th.

Troglodytes hycmalis, Vieill. (Winter Wren). — Observed on
the Patapedia River, September 5th.

Parus a tricapillus, Linn. (Black-cap Tit). — First seen on the
Patapedia, September 5th, afterwards frequently observed in vari-
ous localities.

Regulus satrapa, Lich. (American Golden-crest), — Several
specimens were obtained at Riviere du Loup, May 18th.

Turdus migratorius, Linn. (Robin). — Numerous at Riviere du
Loup, Cacouna, Metis, Matanne, Long Point, Chatte River, Ste-
Anne, Mareouin and Matapedia rivers. At Marcouin river, July
24th, I observed numerous young birds feeding on the maggots
and grubs in rotten fish,

Anthus Ludovicianus, Lich. (American Pipit). — Abundant.
running aboul on low flats near tie* sea sin Riviere du Loup,

May 10th and 20th, Cacouna May 22 I, Green [sland Villaj
May 25th, and R-imouski .lute' 5th. The colour of this bird so

actly resembles die tint of the low, wel ground, stained yellow-
ish with iron, and covered with withered herl where it i
in immense numbers, that although hundreds were runni
around me, I could distinguish none till they rose in the air.

Alauda alpe tri.% Linn. (Shore Lark). — In large flocks on the
stubble in the wheat-fields at the beginning of October, ab
Riuiouski.

Plectropkanes nivalis, Linn. 3 w Bunting). — Large tl<<rk>
at Kamarouska at the beginning of November. Mr. Richardson

202 Natural History of the

captured a specimen alive, which had been injured by flying
against the Telegraph Wire.

Emberiza socialis, Wils. (Chipping Bunting). — Common at
Riviere du Loup, Rimouski, Long Point, and Chatte River.

Niphoea hyemalis, Linn. (Common Snow Bird). — Abundant
from Riviere du Loup to Martin River, and at Little Lake Mata-
pedia. I saw young birds full grown at Ste. Anne, July 15th,
and found a nest containing 4 eggs, July 17th.

Carduelis iristis, Linn. (Yellow-bird or Goldfinch). — Common
at St. Fabien and along the coast to Martin River.

Fringilla Pennsylvanica,, Lath. (White-throated Sparrow). —
Very numerous everywhere about the clearings along the coast.
I found a nest containing four eggs near Long Point, June 16th.
It was on the ground and composed of dry grass. The eggs
were bluish with some dull red spots at the larger end.

Erythrospiza purpurea, Gmel. (Purple Finch). — One speci-
men observed at St. Fabien, May 30th, and flocks were seen at
Ste. Anne, Julv 18th.

Agelaius phceniceus, Linn. (Red-winged Starling, " Blackbird").
— Two seen at Ste. Anne, July 17th.

Quiscalus ferruqineus, Lath. (Rusty Grakle). — Numerous
flocks seen in the clearings along Metis River, and between Metis
and Rimouski, in September and October.

Corvus Americanu.% And. (Common American Crow.) —
Abundant all along the coast, feeding on Littorina, and digging
up Mya arenaria at low tide. They frequently carry the latter
a considerable distance from the water, and at Cacouna the
empty valves were lying in great numbers on the cliffs in the
vicinity of their nests. At Trois Pistoles I found an old nest
nearly filled with the shells of Succinea obliqua, each having a
hole picked in it. On one occasion having wounded a Crow, I
tied him to t e root of a tree, and his outcries soon attracted an
immense number of his fellows, several of which I shot. Near
Green Island Village I saw a flock chasing a Fox round a field.
At Cacouna, May 21st, I found two nests on Spruce trees, one
contained 5 eggs nearly hatched, and as is usual with the eggs of
1 e C rvince, they differed much in colour and markings. The
other nest contained four unfledged young, two being much
larger than the others. It was also an abundant bird on the
Ristiffouche in August.

Garrulus cristatus, Linn. (Blue Jay). — One seen at Little
Lake Matapedia, August 19 th.

Gulf of St. Lawrence. 203

GarmdusCanadensis, Linn. (Canada Jay, " Moosebird "). — Very
common all over the district in the Forest,often approaching within
a yard or two of us, when at our meals, in its well known familiar
manner. The Indians consider this bird one of their greatest
annoyances, as it steals the bait from their traps, and devours their
moose-meat when hanging up to smoke. One of our Indians
told me, that, the preceding winter, while in the act of skinning
a deer one of these birds commenced feeding on the flesh, and he
split its skull with his knife.

Bombycilla Carolinensis, Briss. (Cedar Bird). — Common at
Metis, Ste. Anne, and at. the month of the Marcouin river.

Sitta Canadensis, Linr>. ^Red-bellied Nuthatch). — Several
observed August !9th, at Little Lake Matapedia, and one picked
up a<ja<' near the foot of Big Lake Matapedia.

Trochilus colubris, Linn. (Humming-bird). — One seen at Metis
about the middle of August.

Alcedo alo/on, Linn. (Belted King-fisher). — Abundant on
every river and lake throughout the district, from May 19th to
the end of September. A hole about three or four feet from the
top of a sand cliff near the mouth of the River Ste. Anne, in
whiih a pair of Kingfishers had their eggs, I found to be up-
wards of six feet in depth.

Picus pileatus, Linn. (Pileated Woodpecker, "Log- cock"). — I
was given a specimen which was killed near Green Island. The
Indians report it to be rare in this district.

Picus villosus, Linn. (Hairy Woodpecker). — I shot a specimen
at Ste. Anne, June 28th, and another I noticed on the 30th June
at the same place, had its nest in a White Birch tree about 35
feet from the ground, and the voung were distinctly heard. This
Woodpecker was also observed between St. Fabien and Bic, Mar-
couin and Martin Riv*

Ectopistes migratoria, Linn. (Passenger Pigeon). — Not very
numerous, but a few seen at Chatte River, Ste Anne, Matanne and
Metis, [t was rather numerous in Aug Metis and

Matepedia Lakes, and on the Ristigouche.

Tetrao umbellus, Linn. (Ruffed Grouse, "Partridge"). — Neai
Rimouski, but rather scarce.

T trao Carta Iensi% Linn. (( Janada < ; n >us " Spruce 1 'art rid-
On the 25th June, I was shown one which was caught in a trap
near Matanne. 1 observed several on the M ireouin River al the
end of July, and on the 30th July we met an old Grous : with I

204 Natural History of the

brood about half grown, which flew at us as we passed, exactly
as a common hen would have done. A few occurred near the
Matepedia Lakes, but it was by no means as plentiful as on the
Magdalen River last summer.

Strepsilas inter pres, Linn. (Turnstone). — Observed at Green
Island October 26th.

Tringa pusilla, Wils. (Little Sandpiper). — Abundant at Riviere
du Loup and Green Island in May, and at Chatte and Martin
Rivers in July.

Tringa, ? — A Sandpiper which Mr. D' Urban has

been unable to identify, was shot at the mouth of the Marsoni river,
August 4 th.

Totanus solitarius, Wils. (Solitary Sandpiper). — One specimen
shot August 31st, on the Ristigouche where it was abundant.

Totanus vociferus, Wils. (Tell-tale Tatler).— Many pairs seen at
Riviere du Loup, May 20th.

Scolopax Noveboracensis, Gmil. (Red-breasted Snipe). — One
specimen obtained out of a large flock near Green Island, May
25th.

Ardea Nycticorax, Linn. (Night Heron, " Swamp Hen "). —
Abundant in the swamps near Dalhousie, N.B., also observed on
the Patapedia and near Lake Metis.

Anser Canadensis, Linn. (Common Wild Goose). — Abundant
at Rimouski at the beginning of June, near Cliatte River June
17th, and in vast flocks near Green Island and Cacouna at the
end of October.

Anser leucopsis, Bechst. (Barnacle Goose, "Berneche" of the
Canadians). — Great numbers were passing down the coast when
I was at Rimouski on 1st October, and I saw many that were
shot by the numerous gunners stationed on the quay over which
the Geese passed in their course, and they were also numerous
at the end of the month at Green Island.

Faligula Fusca,Lmn. (Velvet Duck). — Numerous flocks observ-
ed along the coast from June 17th. Dead specimens were picked
up on the sea shore near Ste. Anne in July.

Fuligula perspiciUata, Linn. (Surf Duck). — I was given the
stuffed head of a specimen killed at Green Island, I also noticed
it in a collection of Bird skins, made by Pierre Fortin, Esq., J. P.,
commanding the Government Schooner "La Canadiennc," on the
coast of Labrador.

Fuligula clangula, Linn. (Golden-eyed Duck). — Numerous

Gulf of St. Lawrence. 205

near Bic and Green Island in October. O